As a self-taught nature illustrator, Ferne Glannan-MacRae brings the intricacies of British species to life using Procreate on iPad. Her designs are inspired by a love for the environment and, in particular, British wildlife.
With a background in the design industry and a degree in wildlife photography, Ferne uses intricate line work and natural colour palettes to create products that celebrate the beauty of the natural world.
We recently spoke to Ferne about her company, Ferne Creative, where she told us why the business started, how she decides which species to include in her collections, which charities she supports through her work and what new products she has on the horizon.
Firstly, can you tell us a little about yourself and what inspired you to start Ferne Creative?
I have been drawing since I could hold a pencil, with many artists in my family. I actually studied Marine and Natural History Photography at university, but after my Masters degree I worked as a designer in the printing industry. I always knew that I would hate office work and during lockdown I started painting again and ventured into digital illustration. It was after people online started enjoying my work that I turned it into a business and decided to leave my job. My business is split in two – my product-based business, which focuses on species I want to draw and things to make for nature lovers, and the other commission-based work for charities, nature reserves and other wildlife organisations.
You have such a wide range of products on offer, with so many species featured. How do you choose which species would work on which product?
I often find that choosing what to draw is really hard, so I focus on species I would like to see – a manifestation list. I have started to create collections based on what other people are likely to try and find at nature reserves around the UK, such as Ospreys and puffins. As for which species suits which product, really I go with the flow of what product I want to focus on at that time based on what has been popular.
I love how you manage to ensure that the illustrations are true to life, and each animal or plant looks as it would in nature. Is this important to you and do you have a favourite species to portray?
I have always been a bit of a perfectionist, which I am trying to escape, but I do want all the species to have that sense of accuracy even if I am leaning away from 100% realism at times. My audience is nature lovers and they will notice and care if I miss something important from a drawing (I did get contacted about a ladybird with a missing spot before!). In terms of my favourite species to draw, I have found over time – and as will be clear from my products – that I love drawing birds! In particular, I love all the textures and patterns in their plumage.
You donate a percentage of sales from selected products to various wildlife and conservation charities. Which charities do you support?
I currently have two dedicated products from which I donate a percentage of sales. The first is my Hedgehog enamel pin, which started after my own experience with an injured Hedgehog and the desire to give back. The backing card that the pin comes on is a mini booklet with information to help people in similar situations with injured hogs and tips on who to call. In the past I donated to Secret World Wildlife Rescue, and now I rotate my donations to different Hedgehog-specific hospitals. My other product is an iron-on patch of a Scottish Wildcat. A portion of sales from these are donated to Saving Wildcats, a project aiming to help one of our rarest species through breeding programmes, releases and monitoring.
Do you have any new products on the horizon that you can tell us about?
After the launch of my bird of prey educational colouring book I have had my sights set on making a seabird version and there have been requests for one on butterflies. I love making these, with facts about the species, but I have been working on some simplified colouring books for younger children too.
The UK boasts a rich and diverse fungal kingdom, from spongy puffballs to otherworldly slime moulds and foul-smelling stinkhorns – among these edible treasures lurk several deadly species, capable of causing serious illness and even death. In this blog, we will explore some of the most notorious poisonous mushrooms in the UK.
This blog is for educational purposes only and should not be considered a definitive guide to mushroom identification. Always consult with a professional before consuming any wild mushrooms.
Fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria), also known as Fly Amanita
Commonly depicted in fairy tales, artwork and film, Fly Agaric is a familiar image that comes to mind when one thinks of fungi.
Identification: These common mushrooms are most readily identified by their contrasting bright red (or in some cases, orange) cap and white flesh. The cap can reach 20cm across, is initially hemispherical in shape before opening flat as the mushroom matures and is often accompanied by white spots or ‘warts’ that can be washed off with rain – a remnant of the ‘egg’ covering. On the underside, the gills are closely packed together and are not joined at the stipe – a brittle, bright white stalk. The stipe features a large white skirt that may have yellowed edges, and at its base is a bulbous volva (a cup-like structure) covered with shaggy, scaled rings. Spores are oval and white. Fly Agaric are widely distributed across heathland and moorland from August to December, and show a preference for light soils among birch, pine or spruce trees with which they form mycorrhizal associations.
Toxicity: Reported symptoms of Fly Agaric poisoning can vary greatly, but primarily, this mushroom causes hallucinations, psychosis, diarrhoea and digestive upset. It can be mistaken for the Blusher (Amanita rubescens), an Amanita which has a similar shape, and a pale red-brown cap with cream spots.
Fungi fact: This species was traditionally used as an insecticide – where the name Fly Agaric originated. Ibotenic acid within the toadstool attracts flies and subsequently kills them, which led to its use as a medieval fly trap, where it would be broken up and sprinkled into milk. It has also been used in Siberian civilisations, where it has been consumed for religious and recreational purposes for millennia.
The Panthercap is another distinctive member of the Amanita family, and is strikingly similar to its vibrant cousin, Fly Agaric.
Identification: This poisonous toadstool is not particularly common in Britain, but can be found from July to November in broadleaved woodland, where it forms ectomycorrhizal relationships with beech and oak trees. It can grow up to 14cm in height, with a cap width of around 12cm for mature specimens. The cap itself flattens with age, appears dark brown to slightly red in colour, and is usually covered with thick white ‘warts’ or spots. Underneath the cap, the crowded white gills are free from the stipe and produce white spores that are broadly ovate in shape. The white stipe typically appears smoother towards the top and shaggier under the skirt, which is generally smooth and white. The flesh inside the stipe and cap is hollow and white.
Toxicity: Panthercaps toxins can result in suppression of the central nervous system, involuntary muscle movement, hallucinations, gastrointestinal upset and an increased heart rate. These toadstools may be mistaken for the Blusher, as well as the Grey Spotted Amanita (Amanita excelsa) which can be distinguished by striations on the upper surface of the skirt.
A highly toxic little brown mushroom, the Funeral Bell can quite easily be mistaken for other edible species. It can be found fruiting in clusters on woodchips, dead rotted wood and coniferous/deciduous tree stumps from August to November.
Identification: Funeral Bells can grow up to 7cm in height, with a cap diameter of approximately 6cm. The cap can be pale yellow or brown in colour, or orange in some cases, and the edges are usually lighter than the centre. Pale tan to red/brown gills on the underside of the cap are relatively crowded and are broadly attached to the stipe, occasionally running down it slightly. The fibrous stipe can be found in varying colours, from pale tan to dark brown, which depends largely on maturity, and it has a small membranous skirt, with pale, thin flesh that darkens as the fruit matures. Spores are brown in colour.
Toxicity: Funeral Bells have the same toxins as Death Caps and Destroying Angels – when ingested, these compounds cause gastrointestinal upset within 24 hours, before suddenly resolving. Symptoms return shortly after this and quickly progress into organ failure and eventual death. The Funeral Bell can be easily mistaken for other little brown mushrooms and has been mistaken for Velvet Shank in the past – easily distinguished by a black velvety stem and the absence of a skirt.
Fungi fact: One single mushroom contains enough toxin to kill an adult human.
Although rare in the UK, Deadly Webcaps can be found in coniferous pine and spruce woodland, growing among heather or bilberry from August to November.
Identification: On average, these mushrooms grow to 8cm in height, with a cap width of up to 6cm. Young caps start with a convex shape, before maturing into an umbonate form with a raised and slightly pointed centre. The cap colour can range from reddish brown to orange and the surface may appear hairy or scaly. On the underside, gills can be orange, brown or red, often appearing paler on immature toadstools, and spore prints of this species are typically rusty brown. The gills themselves are fairly widely spaced and emarginate, joined to the stipe with a slight notch and younger specimens may have a pale, slightly orange, cortina (or veil with a cobweb-like structure) that cover them. The stipe can vary in colour and has a slightly bulbous lower half, tapering towards the base.
Toxicity: Following ingestion, symptoms can take up to two weeks to develop, manifesting as digestive upset and interruptions of the central nervous system, soon followed by kidney and liver failure.
Fungi fact: Deadly Webcaps are reported to have a scent reminiscent of radish.
Death Caps are fairly common in broadleaved and mixed deciduous woodland with oak and beech trees, where they can be found in widely spaced groups from July to November.
Identification: On average, these mushrooms grow to around 15cm in height. They begin with a convex cap that flattens as it matures and can be olive yellow to green-bronze in colour – depending on the age of the fruit, a white cap may also be observed. The cap is often darker in the middle and has radiating fibres that give a streaked appearance. Underneath, the gills are broadly spaced and are free of the stipe, appearing white, cream or pink in colour, which changes as the fungus matures. The stalk is generally off-white in colour with a clearly striated skirt and an obvious deep volva. Death Cap spores are white and elliptical in shape.
Toxicity: Death Cap poisoning starts with gastrointestinal symptoms several hours after ingestion. These symptoms can last for days before a brief recovery, after which the liver and kidneys fail resulting in death in most cases. This deadly mushroom can easily be mistaken for a number of edible varieties but can easily be distinguished by a sickly-sweet smell.
Fungi fact: Death Caps have caused the most fatalities from mushroom poisoning in the UK and are known as the world’s most deadly fungus. It has been used as a murder weapon for millennia, and there is no known antidote to its toxins.
Destroying Angels are relatively uncommon in the UK but can be found in broadleaved and mixed deciduous woodland, especially those with Birch trees, from July to November.
Identification: Destroying Angels stand up to 14cm in height, with a cap width of 11cm. They are pure white in colour and start with a convex cap, before maturing to a conical shape and eventually lying flat. Underneath, the white gills are crowded and free of the stem, which has fibrous skin and a bulbous volva at the base. Destroying Angels have a skirt on the upper half of the stipe, which is fragile and may be missing or small in size – it is not striated and is also white in colour. The flesh inside the mushroom is pure white, and the spores are white globose. It is has an unpleasant sickly-sweet smell.
Toxicity: Symptoms – vomiting, diarrhoea and abdominal pain – begin several hours after ingestion and can last for several days before easing into a false recovery and eventual organ failure. Destroying Angels may be mistaken for edible Wood Mushrooms (Agaricus silbicola), which can be distinguished by the smell of aniseed and brown spores.
Fungi fact: Small mammals, including rabbits and squirrels, are known to consume Destroying Angels with no ill effect.
The Green to Grey Project, a cross-border collaborative project of journalists and scientists, has revealed the scale of nature lost to urban development across Europe. Conducted using a combination of satellite imagery, on-the-ground reporting and artificial intelligence, the unprecedented study has revealed that undeveloped land is disappearing up to one and a half times faster across Europe than was previously estimated. Their findings show that the UK has seen 604 sq km of green areas lost to development between 2018 and 2023. It ranks fifth worst of all European countries for green space lost.
by Dmitry Djouce, via flickr.
Fisheries (mis)management
Gross mismanagement of UK fish populations including Cod, Herring and Mackerel has continued despite promises from some politicians during the Brexit campaign that leaving the European Union would provide an opportunity to stabilise fish stocks. A new report from Oceana UK shows that of 105 stocks assessed, only 41% can be considered healthy (meaning they were not overfished to an extent that they could not repopulate) 27% are ‘critically low’ and 25% are being overexploited. Some species, such as North Sea Cod, have been classified as both critically low and still overexploited. Oceana UK has called for a governmental strategy that ends overfishing by the end of 2026.
COP 30 in Brazil
Cop 30, the UN’s climate change summit, will take place in Belém, Brazil. The region is home to the Amazon rainforest, a vital and biodiverse ecosystem which stores billions of tonnes of carbon and still faces catastrophic deforestation (which Brazil’s president Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva has vowed to stop). The 30th UN summit is touted to be the most significant since the Paris Agreement was negotiated in 2015 as countries are obliged to prepare, communicate and maintain their five yearly national climate plans, or Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCS). Taking place in an atmosphere of intense geopolitical turmoil and escalating ecological devastation, the summit will encounter its biggest challenge yet, as the very fabric of global efforts to mitigate climate change threatens to unravel.
The 44th Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), an international body composed of 26 countries and the European Union, has ended in a stalemate. At the heart of this year’s debate was a conflict between the long-proposed designation of an Antarctic Marine Protected Area (MPA), (supported by most members) and a Norwegian proposal to double the scale of industrial krill fishing in the region. Bjørn Krafft, a scientist at the Norwegian Institute of Marine Research and scientific representative for the Norwegian delegation to CCAMLR argued that their ‘proposal is science-driven and developed within Norway’s broader commitment to sustainable fisheries management’. The proposal was opposed by a coalition of nations led by Chile, Argentina, The European Union and New Zealand, who argued that Norwegian research failed to sufficiently consider the impact that even current levels of krill fishing have on predators including seals, whales and penguins. No new designations were adopted.
I recently had the opportunity to attend the official launch of the UK’s National Seagrass Nursery, held by the Ocean Conservation Trust (OCT) as part of its Blue Meadows project. Based on the River Dart, in Devon, the National Seagrass Nursery spans 400 square metres, making it the largest of its kind in the UK. This exciting launch event brought together a variety of national and local stakeholders, all with a vested interest in safeguarding and restoring our seagrass meadows.
Seagrass plays a vital role in marine ecosystems, with a single hectare capable of supporting 80,000 fish and 100 million small invertebrates. These marine meadows are also important carbon stores, absorbing carbon up to 35 times more efficiently than tropical rainforests. Unfortunately, since the 1930s the UK has lost around 90% of its seagrass beds, with the decline driven by a combination of disturbance, disease and pollution.
The OCT’s Blue Meadows project is working to combat this decline, aiming to protect 10% of all UK seagrass meadows and restore 50ha of seagrass over the next decade. The National Seagrass Nursery is a key component of realising these ambitions, and I was lucky enough to enjoy a guided tour of the facility.
In recent years, the OCT has developed a two-pronged approach to subtidal seagrass restoration, using hydro marine seeding and seagrass mat technology in combination. Reflecting this dual approach, the nursery is divided into two sections. One side of the facility is dedicated to processing seagrass seeds that have been harvested from donor sites along the coast of the South West. These seeds are stored in large tanks and, over time, the organic matter that holds them against the flowering stem rots away, allowing the seeds to sink to the bottom. Some of these seeds will be planted directly into the seabed using the HMS OCToPUS, an innovative injection device reminiscent of a large caulking gun. Others will be taken to the other side of the nursery and planted into sand on hessian mats. These mats are then placed into shallow tanks of fresh seawater, which is pumped in from the nearby estuary. Here, they will grow into plantlets, and after 4–6 months they will be ready for planting into the seabed. The mats are then taken to the chosen restoration site and carefully pegged in place by divers.
Despite the innovative facilities and technology on display at this event, what I was most impressed by was the knowledge and dedication of the team. OCT and its supporters have worked incredibly hard and have already seen some early success with 208ha of seagrass currently protected and 3ha restored. The launch of the National Seagrass Nursery represents an exciting step in UK seagrass restoration, and I am looking forward to seeing what the future holds for this initiative. You can learn more about the Blue Meadows project here.
UK Fungus Day is an annual celebration of all things fungi, organised by the British Mycological Society. The day invites people to get involved and learn more about the world of fungi through interactive events, online resources and institutions. We were lucky to speak to Professor Mark Ramsdale, about what makes UK Fungus Day and UK mycology so important.
Mark is chair of the BMS Fungal Education and Outreach Committee and head of training at the Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology at the University of Exeter.
Can you tell us how the British Mycological Society began and what its mission is today?
The British Mycological Society was first active in the late 1800s, when small groups of naturalists began organising “forays among the funguses” to explore and record fungi. What began as a shared passion soon became a learned society, dedicated to advancing fungal biology, supporting research, and encouraging collaboration between scientists and enthusiasts. Today, the BMS is a community for professional and amateur mycologists and enthusiasts. It is one of the major mycological societies in the world, committed to promoting cutting-edge scientific research, fungal conservation and species recording and the provision of educational resources.
And about the society’s current strategic aims here
UK Fungus Day has been running for over a decade. What impact have you seen it make so far, and where would you like to see it go next?
UK Fungus Day has had a huge impact over the past decade, both in raising public awareness and in shaping how fungi are perceived. When it began, fungi were often seen as a niche interest. Now, thanks to the coordinated outreach, school activities, citizen science projects, and media coverage that UK Fungus Day generates each year, there’s a much greater recognition of the vital role of fungi in ecosystems, climate regulation, and even human health.
One of the biggest shifts I’ve noticed is how fungi (funga) are now being celebrated alongside plants (flora) and animals (fauna) and included in biodiversity conversations. More schools, community groups, and nature reserves are running fungus-focused events, and citizen scientists are contributing valuable records that inform policy development and strengthen fungal conservation efforts. The event has also helped inspire the next generation of mycologists by making fungi approachable, fascinating, and fun to learn about.
Looking ahead, I’d like to see UK Fungus Day expand its reach even further, engaging even more with sectors such as food, medicine, art, sustainability and technology – to show just how interconnected fungi are with our lives, and why fungal research is so important.
What are the best ways for people to get involved with UK Fungus Day and mycology as a whole?
There’s so much going on! Whether you’re a complete beginner or an experienced mycologist, you can join local fungus walks and forays, take part in citizen science projects like “Find-a-Fungus” on iNaturalist, or explore fungi creatively through school and community initiatives such as “Fungi Connect”. There are also talks, festivals, workshops, and exhibitions, taking place all over the UK. Or, you can simply head outdoors to photograph and learn about fungi in your own neighbourhood. The UK Fungus Day website features blogs on a range of fungus-focused topics; there’s also poetry and videos of past talks and presentations on YouTube @BritmycolsocOrgUk. However you take part, UK Fungus Day is all about discovery, and helping to grow our understanding of the fungal world.
Mycology appears to be gaining greater appreciation in popular science with more media, books and ID guides being written each year. Some even reaching best seller status. Why do you think this is, and do you hope to see even more coming from the discipline?
Fungi are certainly receiving more attention in popular science media now, and I think this is down to several converging factors. For a long time, fungi were a “forgotten kingdom” compared with plants and animals so they have not been on people’s radars, yet they clearly underpin many key processes. Increasingly, public interest in climate change, biodiversity loss, and sustainability has brought fungi into the spotlight because they are powerful agents of change.
Fungi have always inspired creative artists, and it is not hard to see why. Their biology is full of surprising and often unfamiliar elements: hidden mycelial networks that connect life underground, fruitbodies that mysteriously appear overnight, and species that can adapt their shapes in response to their environment. So, in terms of both popular science and science fiction, their unusual strategies of growth, survival, and reproduction lend fungi an aura of mystery that fuels the imagination. For many, they offer metaphors hinting at hidden connections, transformation, resilience, renewal and decay – concepts that resonate throughout storytelling and art.
It may also simply be that the extraordinary colours, forms and versatility makes them visually compelling subjects. Writers, filmmakers, and field biologists have all recognised this, producing books, documentaries, and field guides.
This cultural shift and growing awareness translate into greater public engagement, fuelling a desire for people to join fungal forays, learn identification skills, and contribute to citizen science recording schemes. As a professional mycologist, it is hugely encouraging: broader awareness of fungi feeds into conservation priorities, medical and agricultural research, and a deeper appreciation of biodiversity as a whole. I absolutely hope the momentum continues. Mycology still has countless stories to tell, and the public appetite is clearly there for more inspiring works.
What developments in mycology are you most excited about right now, and what are your hopes for the field in the future?
I’m particularly excited by the growing recognition of fungi in conservation. In the UK, species such as Waxcaps and wood-decay fungi are finally being acknowledged for their global importance, especially in ancient grasslands and forests. Protecting these ecosystems means protecting the fungi that underpin them.
At the same time, research is giving us unprecedented insight into the fundamental biology of fungi. We are beginning to unravel the molecular mechanisms that control fungal growth and development, yet there are still huge gaps in our knowledge – especially around how fungi interact with one another and how they organise into complex multicellular structures.
From a medical perspective, advances in our understanding of how fungi interact with the immune system are particularly exciting. We now know that the immune response to fungi is much more dynamic and nuanced than previously thought, and that we can use this to our advantage in treatment patients with fungal infections. On top of this, the recent discovery that some fungi host intracellular bacterial parasites which can alter their susceptibility to antifungal drugs opens up entirely new avenues for treatment of human fungal diseases.
What books would you recommend for someone just starting out in mycology? Similarly, what would you suggest for readers wanting to explore the subject further?
There are many excellent books to choose from and different reasons to look at them…
Tributes continue to arise from across the globe as people and institutions remember the life and legacy of Jane Goodall, who has died at the age of 91. The pioneering primatologist and conservationist was regarded as a world expert on chimpanzees, and her discoveries have revolutionised our understanding of ethology. She will be remembered as a tireless advocate for environmental protection and the animal kingdom.
The High Seas Treaty has now reached its 60th ratification, globally, meaning that it will take effect in January 2026. This important environmental milestone provides the foundation for legal mechanisms to create protected areas in international waters outside of national jurisdiction. Ratification represents a positive step towards ocean protection, however MPA designation is not an absolute guarantee that destructive practices will not be banned within the designated area. The British government’s move to continue the allowance of bottom trawling within UK MPAs demonstrates the apparent malleability of the legislation when governance sees an opportunity to override protection in favour of a perceived profit.
The UK itself is still a long way off ratification, but the government has committed to the introduction of legislation, the first step in the process, by the end of the year.
The government has moved to extend the ban on burning vegetation on deep peat. The new legislation means that burning will be banned on all peat that is over 30cm deep. Restrictions are not limited to SSSIs and will cover 676,628ha of deep peat in total – up from 222,000ha under the prior legislation. The ruling has been welcomed by nature groups as a positive step, both towards protection of peatland habitats and tackling the climate crisis.
The Climate Change Act 2008 under threat
Kemi Badenoch has vowed to repeal the Climate Change Act if the conservatives win the next election. The act, which was passed with almost unanimity in 2008, has served as the cornerstone of targets to reduce emissions and mitigate climate change over successive governments. Badenoch has stated that her prospective government would prioritise “growth, cheaper energy, and protecting the natural landscapes we all love”, in a declarative statement that has prompted widespread condemnation from senior conservatives, scientists, economists and businesses. The claims made to support her stance of repeal have been fact checked and reported here.
As part of our ongoing commitment to support wildlife and conservation, all NHBS staff members can apply for up to three days of paid time during each calendar year to spend on conservation projects of their choice. One of our Technical Advisors, Laura, recently spent a week working at RSPB Ynys Lawd / South Stack, in Anglesey. You can read all about her experience below:
Early in 2025, I applied to be a residential volunteer at RSPB Ynys Lawd / South Stack, Anglesey. I was lucky enough to be accepted and spent an incredible week, in early August, on the reserve.
RSPB Ynys Lawd / South Stack is an incredible reserve with swathes of heathland and farmland covering the rugged hills, eventually giving way to rocky sea cliffs. During springtime, large seabird colonies, including Razorbills, Guillemots, Puffins, Fulmars and Kittiwakes, nest in the cliffsides. Choughs and Ravens also call the reserve home, often dancing on the strong sea winds. All three types of Heather can be found there alongside Gorse and the South Stack Fleawort, thought to be endemic to the reserve. Cetaceans journey through the adjoining Irish Sea, with the most common visitors being Risso’s Dolphins, Common Dolphins and Harbour Porpoises.
I participated in the National Whale and Dolphin Watch 2025, run by the Sea Watch Foundation. This nine day citizen science event collects data on the distribution of whales, dolphins and porpoises around the UK. From the iconic Ellin’s Tower, we watched the seascape for an hour and noted any cetaceans that came past. The most memorable sighting was a pod of five Risso’s Dolphins with a calf! These distinctive dolphins are among the largest dolphin species, with some adult males growing up to 3.8 m long. Mature Risso’s Dolphins have unique bodily scarring patterns or ‘rake marks’, caused by members of their own species during social interactions, making them easier to individually identify. They’re also amazing acrobats, as we observed when we were lucky enough to spot a lone male doing backflips in the water! If you want to learn more about these enigmatic creatures, you can read our latest issue of British Wildlife.
Douglas Croft: NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries on Flickr
A lot of my time was spent engaging with visitors and discussing the array of wildlife that inhabits the reserve. From Ellin’s Tower, alongside cetaceans, I observed Grey Seals and seabirds. By August, most of the nesting seabirds had already left, however, the cliffs were by no means deserted. Kittiwakes, Herring Gulls, and Greater Black-backed Gulls were still populating the rocks. Gannets sailed past in the mornings, diving and emerging triumphantly with beaks full of fish. My personal favourite sighting was a juvenile Peregrine Falcon which swooped past the cliffs, honing its hunting skills with impressive dives and turns. Choughs are year-round residents, often announcing their presence with their distinctive “Chee-ow” call and playing in the strong sea winds.
Other days were taken up by roaming the reserve and ensuring it remained clean and free of litter. Handily, they had one of our old-style pond nets, which made it easy to ensure that the wildlife pond was kept free of rubbish.
All in all, I had a wonderful week, thanks in part to the beautiful surroundings and wildlife but also to the lovely staff and other volunteers who made me feel so welcome. It’s an experience I would heartily recommend.
Many books have been written about notable names in the world of natural history, with the likes of Darwin and Wallace being the first that come to mind. Digging a little deeper in areas such as ornithology will uncover names that aren’t as well known and yet still made significant contributions to the field. Uncovering almost 30 species of birds that were previously unknown to science, John Henry Gurney was a founding member of the British Ornithologists’ Union in 1859, while focusing on the identification of birds of prey. Large collections of letters written by Gurney to Alfred Newton are held by Norfolk County Council in the Norfolk Archive Centre, and others to his family members are in the Library of the Society of Friends in Euston, London. Now a deeply researched biography about the man, his personal life and his contributions to cataloguing nature is being published by John Beaufoy Publishing.
NHBS managed to bring the co-authors together to answer a few questions about the book and uncovering the history of a man seemingly forgotten by the world of ornithology.
Clive Slater, Peter Mundy and Ray Williams
How did you first come across John Henry Gurney, and why did you decide to write this biography?
As co-authors of this biography, we (Clive Slater, Peter Mundy and Ray Williams) have combined our three quite different perspectives of John Henry Gurney. Almost 50 years ago, Ray commenced research on a bio-bibliography of the Victorian publisher John Van Voorst (1804-1898) and has published many accounts of the books that Van Voorst produced. One of them, in 2008, concerned Gurney’s Descriptive Catalogue of the Raptorial Birds in the Norfolk and Norwich Museum – Part I. Discovering that Gurney was occupied from 1857 to 1864 in producing Part I but that he never completed the project prompted the obvious question of “why?” Further investigations revealed his misfortunes of the 1860s, including his wife’s elopement, an inevitable divorce, and his entanglement in the notorious financial crash of Overend & Gurney for which the directors were tried for fraud (but acquitted).
When Peter was studying vulture specimens in the bird collection at the Natural History Museum at Tring for his PhD, he noticed some with Norwich Castle Museum labels. Then, much later, having bought a copy of Gurney’s 1884 account of raptors in the Norfolk and Norwich Museum, he realised what a huge collection it must have once been. He asked Clive, his ornithologist friend from university days in the 1960s and now a Norwich resident, to investigate. Apparently, none of the original specimens were present, which sparked their quest to discover more about Gurney and the fate of his remarkable collection. Since so little of his work seemed to have been remembered, Peter and Clive decided that it deserved wider recognition and so set about writing a biography. Since Ray’s 2008 paper on Gurney’s Descriptive Catalogue of the Raptorial Birds had come to Clive’s attention, contact was made, and thus came about our decision to join forces, Clive and Peter contributing as ornithologists, and Ray as a historian and bibliographer.
For those unfamiliar with Gurney, could you briefly tell us a bit about him and his work?
Gurney was born in 1819 and raised among the famous Norfolk family of wealthy Quaker bankers, also well known as philanthropists or promulgators of the Quaker faith, not only in Britain, but also in America. After education at a Quaker school, he entered the family bank in Norwich. He had started collecting bird specimens from an early age and this interest developed into journal publications. From 1853, he made collecting and writing about raptors his speciality. Simultaneously, he was receiving and publishing on bird specimens supplied by collectors in southern Africa. These two threads dominated his life’s ornithological work. However, John Henry fell for a cousin, Mary Jary Gurney who was an Anglican, and he was therefore, upon his marriage to her, disowned by his co-religionists, as was the current Quaker convention.
Nevertheless, he did not abandon the principles of his upbringing and was assiduous in his commitments to his banking career, his public service as an MP and JP and his philanthropy. Though his additional personal ornithological research resulted in a constant and considerable workload, what is truly astonishing is his determination and strength of mind in continuing his bird work throughout a series of tragic misfortunes during the 1860s. His research procedures were constant throughout his life, meticulously documenting external morphology of as many specimens as possible, while accurately recording geographical distributions. He was not a theorist, however, and dealt only in facts as he recorded them. Although best known for his studies of the world’s birds of prey, Gurney’s wide zoological interests also embraced the birds, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, mammals and marine invertebrates of his home county of Norfolk, which he supplemented with fascinating accounts of historical manuscripts.
What were the greatest challenges you faced when writing this biography?
The research itself was, of course, naturally difficult and time consuming, involving numerous visits to libraries, archives and museums by all of us. The access to archival material in private and public collections of books and specimens in the UK and southern Africa was challenging and required much logistic planning. Covid lockdowns hampered access to libraries and museum collections. On several occasions when reviewing progress, we found that the vast amount of information gleaned had to be severely edited in order to keep below the agreed word limit.
A significant challenge, therefore, was not any difficulty in finding enough information, but was how to select the most important facts and to present them in the most succinct fashion. Moreover, information had to be continually assessed and corroborated, which additionally involved the interpretation and explanation of events, extending in the end to nine years since we decided in 2016 to combine resources. However, the major issue was Peter’s deteriorating health, leading to his death in February 2023. Nevertheless, his determination to continue contributing to our work despite his serious illness was inspirational and we vowed to finish the book as a testament to his courage (the book is also dedicated to him).
This book covers the intriguing twists and turns of Gurney’s life in impressive detail. Were there any discoveries that surprised you when researching this book?
Much taxonomic information was encountered, though that is practically certain to arise in any biography of a Victorian naturalist. It is significant, however, how deeply respected he was in the ornithological circles of his day – many others across the world would often seek his help and advice in their studies. But perhaps the most surprising revelations concern Gurney’s private life and how he miraculously managed to continue his ornithological research in the face of so much adversity and personal tragedy, all of which became intertwined with other misfortunes of his wider Norfolk family. These discoveries provided the answers that Ray sought to explain the slow progress of the Descriptive Catalogue of the Raptorial Birds and the failure to complete it. Whilst the Overend & Gurney affair has been known about for some years, we were able to add some more detail. Most startling of all was the story of Gurney’s wife’s elopement and its tragic impact not only on his own life, but his whole family, and British and American Quakers in general.
The American newspaper press was gleeful in their cruel and unjustifiable use of the unfortunate event for their own political purposes. Gurney must have been deeply embarrassed by the public exposure of these events, hence his self-exile from Norfolk for five years. However, the care he bestowed on his sickly younger son was exemplary and his ability to continue his bird studies whilst living out of a suitcase for years was quite extraordinary. Equally impressive was his memory of details of his specimens at that time, even when he could not access them. He apparently never saw his recalcitrant wife again, but as it happened, she possessed huge financial resources of her own and thus Mary Jary and her lover were ultimately able, after their marriage, to re-establish themselves in society with very little trouble. However, their family also was to be visited again by tragedy when Mary died of cancer, aged 43, and their daughter died of a brain disease, aged 31.
I was surprised to learn that although Gurney donated 1,300 foreign bird specimens to the Lynn Museum, sadly, none of them remain. What specimens would you have been most interested in seeing?
Of course, all the specimens were valuable historically but most exciting would have been a view of the collection from Alfred Russel Wallace’s travels in the Malay Archipelago, as these would have been special and we do not even know what they were! Also intriguing would have been sight of the central displays of birds of paradise and hummingbirds that must have been striking but we have no idea what they looked like.
There are currently seven recognised bird species named in Gurney’s honour. Do you have a personal favourite?
Yes, a great favourite of Clive’s is Gurney’s Eagle, Aquila gurneyi 1860. More than 160 years after George Robert Gray honoured Gurney with its name we still know very little about the biology of this species – nobody has reported even finding a nest! An attempt to see it in Halmahera in 2017 was frustrating for the only fleeting, distant views. For such a large, imposing eagle to be so elusive and little known is quite remarkable.
Despite his vast contributions, including describing 29 birds, 21 of which are still recognised today, John Henry Gurney seems to be somewhat forgotten by modern ornithology. Why do you think this is?
Since Victorian times, momentous scientific advances have been made and the world’s environment is rapidly changing beyond all recognition. In the biosciences, there has been for a century or more an increasing trend for research to become focused on ecology, biodiversity, migration, physiology, biochemistry, genetics and climatology, all of which are now crucial for understanding and combatting the threats of global warming and habitat destruction. Whilst taxonomy must underpin these trends, so that biologists are able to confidently identify whole organisms of animals and plants of importance, the emphasis on taxonomy per se has shifted from the Victorian obsession with finding and naming new species for its own sake. Thus, Gurney is only one of many hundreds of naturalists of his period now unknown to modern biologists in general.
Even Peter, a modern authority on raptors and southern African birds, was baffled as to why for so long he knew little about Gurney, who published nothing about himself and only one very small booklet aimed at the public to serve as a guide to his raptorial collection. Difficult to trace were his letters and other manuscripts, widely scattered among collections in the Natural History Museum in Tring, the Castle Museum in Norwich, the Barclays Group Archives in Manchester, and the Society of Friends’ Library in London. Perhaps if his planned book of raptor paintings by Joseph Wolf had come to fruition he would have become better known. But it seems strange that most world birders and conservationists are so familiar with his name via the beautiful but near-extinct Gurney’s Pitta.
How would you describe Gurney’s impact on ornithology?
Gurney helped lay the foundations of modern ornithology in Victorian times by supporting the fledgling British Ornithologists’ Union and their journal, Ibis, in which he published his papers on raptors and southern African birds, embellished by Joseph Wolf’s illustrations. By his descriptions of new raptorial species and records of worldwide geographical distribution of many species he contributed crucial information to the difficult study of raptors, still a perplexing group. We should also recognise the lasting value of his specimens to modern scholars and the support that he provided to other ornithologists in his day.
What are you working on next? Do you have any more writing projects lined up?
Clive continues researching the history of the bird collections that were once held at Norwich Castle Museum but were dispersed in the 1950s, at the same time as Gurney’s raptorial collection. Thousands of bird specimens were sold, loaned or given to other institutions. Some of them emanated from important expeditions and notable naturalists, so why were these collections at Norwich in the first place, what went where, and why?
Now that Ray’s work on Gurney is finished, he is returning to his project of the bio-bibliography of John Van Voorst, and after that, a similar study is envisaged of the life of Thomas Alan Stephenson (1898-1961), a sea-anemone taxonomist and expert on marine intertidal zonation, as well as a superb botanical and zoological artist whose beautifully accurate paintings give the impression of being colour photographs.
John Henry Gurney – A Passion for Birds is published by John Beaufoy Publishing in association with the British Ornithologists’ Club, and is available in hardback from NHBS here.
Mosses, Liverworts, and Hornworts of the World makes sense of this highly diverse group of miniature plants, differentiating between the three lineages and delving into their evolution, anatomy, and life cycles. The result is an unprecedented in-depth look at these exquisitely beautiful and often overlooked organisms.
Joanna Wilbraham is an active member of the British Bryological Society and Principal Curator at the Natural History Museum, London, where she leads the curatorial team responsible for the collections of algae, bryophytes, and lichens. At just over two million specimens, this is one of the most significant research collections of its kind in the world.
We recently spoke to Joanna about Mosses, Liverworts, and Hornworts of the World, where she told us how she decided which species to include, threats facing these groups and what projects are on her horizon.
Firstly, can you tell us a little bit about yourself, your background, and how you came to write this book?
I first became interested in bryophytes (mosses, liverworts and hornworts) as an undergraduate student. I was keen to do my final research project in botany after an inspiring field trip to the Austrian Alps and was presented with two botanical options: an agricultural research experiment on wheat plants or a project working with bryophytes. Neither option sounded very appealing at the time, but I opted for the bryophytes and have never looked back. Almost immediately I noticed a tiny world I hadn’t previously paid any attention to. I was amazed to discover there was an actual club devoted to the study of these plants! I swiftly joined the British Bryological Society which led to many field excursions getting out and about with experts – undoubtedly the best way to get to get to know bryophytes and learn how to identify them.
I’ve been fortunate to be able to work with my favourite plant groups professionally over the course of my career. As a curator at the Natural History Museum, London, I specialised in cryptogamic botany, that’s those plants and plant-like groups that reproduce by spores rather than seeds. I focused on seaweeds and freshwater algae for many years though bryophytes have always stayed on my agenda. I am currently Curator of Mosses at the Museum, and I have the privilege of curating one of the largest and most significant collections of preserved moss specimens in the world.
When I was invited to write a book in Princeton’s ‘A Guide to Every Family’ series I saw an opportunity to bring the wonderful world of bryophytes to a wider audience and also a chance for me to spend time delving into some fascinating research along the way.
How did you decide which species to include in Mosses, Liverworts & Hornworts of the World?
The premise of books in this series is to provide a complete overview of a group at some appropriate taxonomic level. Classifications are constantly in flux as new research reveals more about the natural world but, at the time of writing the book, bryophytes were classified into 73 accepted taxonomic orders and this looked like a good starting point to base the narrative around. Some of these orders represent huge diverse groupings. For example, the Hypnales are an immense group of creeping mosses with over 4,000 genera, so I squeezed in a few example genus profiles here to showcase their diversity. In contrast, some other orders are only represented by one known extant genus, so for those the decision of what genera to include made itself. Some bryophytes are so charismatic that I simply had to include them, such as Dawsonia,the world’s largest free-standing moss. I did give in to some personal biases to include some of my favourite plants like the beautiful Myurium in the Hypnales. However, all the taxonomic entries had to pull their weight by contributing to the broader narrative of the book, such as revealing something about their evolutionary past, their adaptations to a world in miniature or how they are responding to a rapidly changing planet. Within these parameters, I chose 100 genera to illustrate the structural and evolutionary diversity of bryophytes from around the world.
Can you tell us about the most interesting species that you’ve learned about while researching your book? ?
There are many fascinating species I knew from the outset had to have their stories included. We meet a moss that glows in the dark; mosses that grow on dung and decaying corpses; a moss that could allegedly survive on Mars and a moss that saved the life of a Victorian explorer in western Africa. The structure of the book also forced me to peer around obscure taxonomic corners and investigate species which I hadn’t come across before. I got to know some new plants like the large charismatic tropical moss Sorapilla. This genus is so rare it was only known from a handful of historic herbarium specimens until a student on a botanical fieldtrip in the Queensland rainforest discovered a new population in 2015! It was also fun to discover more stories about people’s interactions with bryophytes. I needed to research the liverwort genus Solenostoma and in particular the species S. vulcanicola which has a remarkable capacity to thrive in acidic hot springs where is forms extensive, lime-green cushions. Known locally in Japan as the ‘Chatsubomi moss’, specialist tours are available to visit this plant on the Chatsubomi tour bus and now I really want to go to Japan!
Given our rapidly changing climate, what are the largest threats facing these groups, and how can we safeguard them going forward?
We are witness to increasing threats to the survival of bryophytes in their natural habitats around the world. Recent studies have reported that around 20% of European bryophyte species are threatened with extinction. These worrying declines result from the combined consequences of climate breakdown and habitat destruction.
The most immediate threat to bryophytes is the destruction and degradation of their natural habitats. Sphagnum mosses, which form peatlands, play an essential role in our planet’s biochemical cycles, sequestering huge quantities of carbon. The extensive peatlands of the boreal north store twice as much carbon as tropical forests. Alarmingly, increasing temperatures are threatening the existence of these peatland bogs as they risk drying out in warmer conditions. It is more imperative than ever that we protect these peat forming Sphagnum bogs and the wealth of biodiversity that they support. Sphagnum bogs should be treasured and certainly not destroyed for peat extraction to support the horticultural industry. Please make sure to buy peat-free at the garden centre and help save Sphagnum bogs by taking away the demand for these products.
Climate breakdown is having a huge impact on bryophytes. The story that resonated the most for me when I researched the book was that of the rare and enigmatic moss Takakia. This genus represents an ancient lineage and evidence suggests that Takakia plants have existed in the form we are familiar with today for at least 165 million years. Populations of Takakia on the Tibetan Plateau actually predate the uprising of the Himalayas! At a cellular level, these plants have had to adapt at phenomenal rates to protect themselves from the extreme increases in UV radiation and freezing conditions that one finds oneself exposed to when lifted up atop the world’s highest mountain range. However, Takakia faces its greatest challenge yet as the planet is now warming at such an unprecedented rate that even Takakia cannot adapt fast enough and the Tibetan populations are recorded to be steadily declining. Ultimately, the planet’s rapidly changing climate and our global ability to reduce carbon emissions going forward is the driving factor that will determine the fate of many bryophytes.
What’s next for you? Are you working on any other projects that we can hear about?
At the Natural History Museum, I’m responsible for curating and managing the moss herbarium which, with over 700,000 specimens, is one of the largest collections of its kind in the world. Herbaria are taxonomically arranged libraries of preserved plant specimens that provide spatial and temporal distribution data for species. New uses for these collections are constantly coming to light, so it’s a really exciting time for us in the curatorial team and we are busy working on some major projects to make these collections and their associated data more accessible for researchers around the world. I am particularly interested in how we can better leverage our bryophyte herbarium data to support biodiversity and conservation research that can lead to a positive impact for bryophytes in the wild.
The good thing about studying bryophytes is you don’t necessarily need to travel far and wide to find some beautiful species and contribute useful insights on their distribution or biology! I’m looking forward to getting back into some local recording when the hoped for autumn rains revitalise the poor drought frazzled bryophytes of South London. With a magnifying glass to hand there can always be something new to discover.
Members of the fungal kingdom come in a remarkably diverse variety of shapes, sizes and colours. This blog provides an introduction to several captivating and commonly encountered fungal genera, highlighting their key characteristics, applications and identification tips.
We hope that this guide serves as a useful starting point to help recognise a few of the broad groups of mushrooms commonly encountered in the UK, but it should not be used for foraging purposes. There are around 15,000 species of fungi in Britain and identification can be extremely challenging, often requiring microscopic examination. Even in popular edible groups there are species or lookalikes that can cause serious illness, so it is vitally important to never collect or consume mushrooms unless you are absolutely certain of the identification.
There are around 600 species in the Amanita genus across the globe. This fascinating group exhibit great diversity but are best known for Fly Agarics and their distinctive crimson cap which features in mythology, folklore, art and media. While some members of this genus are edible, Amanitas are better known for their poisonous qualities and hallucinogenic properties. There are roughly fifty Amanita species that can be found within the UK. Around fifteen species are common and can be readily found near the base of trees, and five of these individuals are considered poisonous. Despite containing some edible species, the genusis generally avoided and are not considered safe for the novice forager.
Key Characteristics: Amanita’s form a mycorrhizal symbiotic relationship with trees – where they release enzymes and other organic acids to break down organic matter, making the nutrition in the soil more bioavailable. In turn, trees will provide Amanitas with nutrition synthesised through photosynthesis. These mushrooms can be characterised by white (or off-white) gills, that are closely spaced and free from the stipe and they are often seen with irregular patches, or ‘warts’ on the cap, which are fragments of the veil – a membrane that enclosed the young mushroom.
Uses or Applications: Research has shown potential for Aminata species in healthcare, particularly for their anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties. Historically, Fly Agarics have also been used as an insecticide, where they were broken up into milk and used to trap flies.
Species Examples: Death Cap (Amanita phalloides), Destroying Angel (Amanita virosa), Fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria), Panther Cap (Amanita pantherina)
Introduction: More than 100 Mycena species can be found throughout Britain and Ireland, although less than half of these are considered common or widespread in distribution. They are often referred to as ‘bonnets’ and consist of small, delicate toadstools with fragile stems and a number of these species are known to be bioluminescent, caused by a chemical reaction within the tissue cells.
Key Characteristics: A small conical or bell-shaped mushroom with a thin stem. Mycena caps can be translucent or may have light striations and on the underside, gills are attached to the stipe and produce white spores. Due to their small size (caps from 0.5 – 15cm), some species may only be identified through microscopic examination and spore sampling.
Uses or Applications: Due to their small size, Mycena are not considered edible – some species within the genus are poisonous, and since the group are difficult to identify, they are generally regarded as unsuitable for foraging.
Species Examples: Common Bonnet (Mycena galericulata), Rosy Bonnet (Mycena rosea), Lilac Bonnet (Mycena pura)
Introduction: The Psyilocybe genus is a widespread group of mushrooms, some of which are well known for their psychoactive properties. They are found across the globe in a range of nutrient rich habitats, and can be found growing in clusters in mossy, grassy or forested areas in the UK. The genus is split into two clades, one of which is comprised of hallucinogenic species that have a blue staining reaction when bruised (however it is worth noting that not all blue-staining fungal species contain psilocybin).
Key Characteristics: Psilocybes fall into the ‘little brown mushroom’ category – a non-descript, brown to yellow coloured mushroom that is small to medium in size. These gilled toadstools typically produce a dark spore print, have a slender stipe and a hygrophanous cap that changes colour as moisture levels change in the mushroom tissue.
Uses or Applications: Psilocybes are often referred to as ‘magic mushrooms’ for their psychoactive properties. Species in this genus can contain compounds such as psilocybin, which induce hallucination and changes in perception for those who have ingested the compound and has been historically used to treat some psychiatric conditions.
Species Examples: Liberty Cap (Psilocybe semilanceata), Wavy Cap (Psilocybe cyanescens).
Introduction: A genus of puffball mushrooms with approximately fifty species across the globe. These instantly recognisable fungi are common and widespread around the UK and can be found on the ground in woodland and pasture with plenty of leaf litter, where they decompose organic matter.
Key Characteristics: Lycoperdon species have a distinctive set of characteristics that allow for easy identification. These small-medium sized balls do not have gills or spores and have no cap. They tend not to have a stipe, but some species do have a small one that can appear thicker. Some species have a tough outer skin, and inside, the mushroom should have white, spongy flesh that turns yellow or brown as the spores mature. Members of this genus are basidiomycetes – they produce spores within the basidia (a microscopic spore-producing structure) which are located inside the fruiting body, releasing a cloud of spores when squeezed.
Uses or Applications: Most species in the Lycoperdon genus are edible. They are said to have a mild taste and smell, making them choice edibles for many foragers. Although they have a tendency to become slimy once cooked, puffballs are a common substitute in various vegetarian dishes.
Historically, puffballs have been used in medicine for their hemostatic properties which stop or slow the flow of blood, and blacksmiths in particular are known to have kept puffballs in the forge for these properties, as well as their ability to aid in the healing of burns.
Species Examples: Common Puffball (Lycoperdon perlatum), Pestle Puffball (Lycoperdon excipuliforme), Stump Puffball (Lycoperdon pyriforme)
Introduction: There are around 250 Boletus species worldwide, which until recently, were divided into smaller families and have since combined to form a larger genus. There are approximately 80 species of Bolete within the family Boletaceae in the UK, and many of these are choice edible species for foragers. As a largely mycorrhizal group, Boletes are commonly found in woodland or forest but may also be found in grassland habitats. Boletes can be found in a variety of shapes, sizes and colours –appearing quite large with thick, meaty fruiting bodies or smaller in size with more delicate features. Species in this group are basidiomycetes – instead of gills, these mushrooms have spongy, pore-filled masses on the underside of the cap which release spores.
Key Characteristics: Boletes are usually large, fleshy mushrooms with a thick stipe, characterised by spore-bearing structures on the underside of the cap, called tubes. The group is basidiomycetes, which feature a spongy mass containing pores that disperse white to yellow spores into the air. A large number of Boletes are also known to form mycorrhizal relationships with trees, and can often be found under broadleaf and coniferous trees.
Uses or Applications: A number of Bolete species are edible, including the King Bolete, and are considered some of the most versatile edible fungi.
Species Examples: King/Cep/Porcini/Penny Bun Bolete (Boletus edulis), Summer Bolete (Boletus reticulatus), Bronze Bolete (Boletus aereus)
If you’d like to delve deeper into the world of fungi and attempt to identify the mushrooms species you come across, here are our top picks to get you started:
As a self-taught nature illustrator, Ferne Glannan-MacRae brings the intricacies of British species to life using Procreate on iPad. Her designs are inspired by a love for the environment and, in particular, British wildlife.
Can you tell us how the British Mycological Society began and what its mission is today?
