A charismatic highlight of any rock-pooling session, crabs are both diverse and wonderful. Here we have a selection of the most common crabs in the UK, detailing their habitats and how to identify them.
Where to find them: The species is widespread throughout the UK and can be found year-round on rocky shores at low water. They are found more frequently on sheltered shores and prefer rocky substrates.
Shell Width: Up to 10cm.
ID: Also known as the devil crab, the Velvet Swimming Crab has short hairs covering its body, giving the animal a velvety appearance. The crab is blue in colour, but is covered by a reddish-brown pubescence masking the overall hue – they do, however, have visible blue lines on their legs, and blue tips on their claws. The carapace is flattened and has five pointed ridges on either side of the eyes. A fast-moving and aggressive crab, it has distinctive, bright red eyes that give it its alternative name. Pincers are of equal size, and the rear legs are flattened to be used as paddles.
Where to find them: Edible Crabs can be found year-round on rocky shores across the UK. The species is often found hidden under rocks and boulders but can also be found on mixed coarse ground and on muddy sand offshore.
Shell width: 10-25cm, averaging around 15cm.
ID: A large species, the Edible Crab is also known as the brown crab for its colour – they can be brown to reddish-brown, bearing white patches and young specimens can have a purple-brown carapace. They have a thick, oval-shaped shell with a distinctive ‘pie crust’ edge. Also recognised by the black tips to their claws.
Where to find them: Spiny Spider Crabs, also known as European spider crabs, can be found from January to December on rocky areas. They are common on the south and west coasts, but are largely absent from northern England, Scotland and the North Sea.
Shell width: Up to 20cm.
ID: Known to be the largest spider crab in Britain and Ireland, they are instantly recognisable for their long legs resembling a spider. They have a distinctively spiky carapace, often covered with algae giving it a hairy, green appearance. The shell has an oval shape, broader at the back and narrower at the front. It has longer, more pronounced spines on the border of the shell, and the rest is covered by smaller spines. They are mostly orange in colour, but have been found in red, yellow or brown varieties. They have two distinct frontal spines which are sandwiched by two small eyes. The legs are covered in hair, with the first pair bearing small claws.
Where to find them: Common Hermit Crabs can be found year-round on rocky shores and sandy substrates along the UK coast. They are most easily found in rock pools at low tide, particularly after storms and turbulent weather, where they can be dislodged and are more easily visible.
Shell width: Varies according to body size, which can measure up to 4cm in length.
ID: The largest and most common of the 15 hermit crab species, these crabs live inside the empty shells of sea snails, commonly whelks and periwinkles. Their body is reddish-brown in colour, with a larger right pincer. Their claws are strong, and are covered in uniformly distributed granules, with two rows of larger granulations starting at the base of the claw, converging towards the middle. The species is associated with Calliactis parasitica, a sea anemone which lives on their shell in a symbiotic relationship.
Where to find them: Shore Crabs are found year-round in rockpools. They may also be found while crabbing in shallow waters and are particularly abundant in estuaries and salt marshes.
Shell width: Up to 9cm.
ID: The species is slightly green in colour, but can also be found with orange and red carapaces and yellowish spots on the abdomen – varied colouration can be attributed to life cycle stages, and juvenile Shore Crabs specifically can have significant variance in colour. The broad carapace has five teeth on each side of the shell, and three scalloped lobes between the eyes.
Where to find them: A small burrowing crab, the Masked Crab can be found buried in sandy substrates on the lower shore. They are found along most of the British coastline and are particularly abundant in the south and west of the UK.
Shell width: Up to 4cm.
ID: Masked Crabs have an elongated oval carapace with long antennae, often the size of their body. Their colour can range from reddish brown to yellow and the lateral margin of the carapace has four distinct spines. The claws are twice the length of the carapace, although females have smaller pincers.
Where to find them: Can be found January to December across the UK, although with sporadic distribution. They can be found under rocks and small boulders on rocky shores.
Shell width: 1.5–1.8cm.
ID: A small crab covered with long hairs, the Porcelain Crab can be grey to greenish-brown with an off-white underside. They have large, broad front claws that appear to be slightly flattened and two long antennae. The fifth pair of legs are smaller and often concealed, resulting in the illusion of only three pairs of walking legs. Due to its size and impressive camouflage, this species can be hard to spot.
It can be truly fascinating to sift through rock pools, finding the weird and wonderful creatures that our environment has to offer,but it is important to remember best practices when investigating our wildlife. To look for crabs safely, approach them from behind to avoid pincers, opt for a net for safe retrieval and hold the crab firmly, without squeezing, to ensure that it does not fall whilst handling. When you are finished, remember to leave everything where you found it, replace any rocks that you may have turned over during your search and return crabs to the same body of water you found them in.
***** A balanced and non-judgemental account of people’s differing attitudes
As some of the world’s largest predators, orcas are both loved and loathed, though these sentiments sometimes come from unexpected corners. Danish marine biologist Hanne Strager has studied orcas and other whales for some four decades, working with a wide range of people. In The Killer Whale Journals, she plumbs the complexities and nuances of people’s attitudes, writing a balanced, fair, and thought-provoking insider’s account. Given the preponderance of research and books on Pacific Northwest orcas, hers is a refreshingly cosmopolitan perspective, taking in the experiences of people past and present in many other parts of the world.
Strager’s involvement with whale research started on a whim when she volunteered as a cook on a small research vessel going around the Lofoten Islands in northern Norway. This was in the 1980s and would, with some interruptions, be the start of a career in research and education that lasts to this day. Though she is fully qualified to write a scholarly work on orca biology, this is not that book. Rather, this is “a patchwork of stories I have collected over my years on the ocean about our relationship with the biggest predator on Earth” (p. 17). And what a wide-ranging, multi-hued patchwork it has become!
Some of these relationships are as you would expect. In her early days in Norway, both the whalers and fishermen she spoke to disliked orcas, considering them a pest species that frightens away other whales and eats all the herring. Similarly expected is the strong respect expressed by First Nations people in British Columbia. Other people hold attitudes you would not expect, breaking with stereotypes. When Scottish whalers emigrated to Twofold Bay, New South Wales, Australia in the mid-1800s, they continued the cross-species relationship established by the Aboriginal Thawa tribe, leading to an unlikely, century-long alliance between orcas and whalers. At the other end of the spectrum, Strager visits Inuit hunters in Greenland who continue to rely on the sea for their sustenance. They kill orcas on sight, convinced they eat narwhals. However, data from the Greenland Institute of Natural Resources do not back up this assertion: orcas rarely share the waters with narwhals, nor have narwhal remains been found in their stomachs. Hunting organizations disagree and stick to their narrative, continuing to kill orcas even though the meat is unsuitable for human consumption due to high levels of bioaccumulated pollutants. Strager is loathe to judge these people given their hospitality and willingness to talk to her, but she candidly admits that she is left troubled.
What further contributes to the book’s full-bodied picture is that Strager, as a Danish scientist, provides a non-US-centric perspective and has access to material written in other languages. With the help of a friend, she translates hundreds of newspaper articles from Iceland’s National Archive to puzzle together the story of how the US Air Force got involved in massacring orcas here in the 1950s, doing bombing raids on pods. Being plugged into the Scandinavian research community, Strager can furthermore draw on her connections to visit and speak to people in Denmark, Greenland, Russia, and various places in Norway.
Killer Whale (Orcinus orca) by Gregory “Slobirdr” Smith, via flickr.
Increasingly, the demonization of orcas has made way for a different understanding, seeing these as intelligent mammals, not unlike us. A new generation of fishermen in Norway is less hostile. The extra income generated by wildlife tourism and whale watching does not hurt, but, adds a Norwegian marine ecologist, there is also a sense of pride in one’s local patch. Having tourists visit from around the world and witnessing their awe can make people realize that their humdrum backyard is maybe not that humdrum after all. Captive orcas in aquaria and marine parks are another reason why public attitudes shifted from fear to fascination to concern over animal welfare, as has been so carefully documented by James M. Colby in Orca. Despite opposition, the capture and trade of orcas continues and one harrowing chapter delves into the infamous Russian “whale jail” that was exposed by journalist Mashaz Netrebenko in 2018.
As mentioned earlier, this is not a scholarly book, so orca biology takes a bit of a backseat. Nevertheless, you will learn about, for instance, the different orca populations and their dietary specializations, and how they do not mix genetically, causing a headache for conservation biologists. This behaviour is a prominent example of culture in cetaceans as it is learned and passed on from generation to generation. Strager also discusses the recent spate of attacks by orcas on pleasure craft in the Mediterranean. A marine mammal researcher from Madeira admits that she does not know if this is retaliation or just rambunctious play, but its rapid spread in the region sure points to orcas learning new behaviours from each other. Conservation concerns are the main recurrent biological theme in this book. Reflecting on the situation in the Pacific Northwest and the tremendous efforts expended on returning one orphaned orca, Springer, back to its pod, Strager writes how: “saving one orphan whale is a trivial task compared to changing the conditions that threaten these whales” (p. 214). Overfishing, chemical and noise pollution, shipping, aquaculture, hydroelectric dams—the long list of environmental insults is a poignant reminder that, in the words of Michael J. Moore, we are all whalers, even if only indirectly.
Orcas in the Lemaire Channel by Pedro Szekely, via flickr.
The other aspect that takes a backseat is Strager’s personal story. This book covers some four decades of her life, from a young student in the 1980s to a seasoned researcher now. And yet, important life events are mentioned rather than elaborated upon. They help provide a sense of place and circumstance, but never play a central or even supporting role in her stories. The fact that she would have a child with the man who helped her onto that first research vessel all those years ago is one of those offhand, blink-and-you-miss-it comments. Nor does she mention that she is now working as a Director of Exhibitions, turning the local Whale Center in Andenes, Norway, where she worked for years into a world-class museum, The Whale, to open in 2025.
The Killer Whale Journals takes in an impressively broad range of people past and present. There are various other fascinating stories I have not even touched upon here. Strager remains mild-mannered and non-judgemental throughout as she carefully charts the nuances, inconsistencies, and complexities of people’s attitudes. If you have any interest in cetaceans or marine biology more generally, this absorbing book comes recommended.
Jellyfish, or jellies (as some scientists would like them to be called), are mainly free-swimming members of the subphylum Medusozoa. The jellyfish form is actually the medusa phase of certain gelatinous Medusozoans, many of whom also have several other phases, including a sedentary polyp phase. Jellyfish are found across the world and fossil evidence shows that they have been in existence for at least 500 million years. The largest is thought to be the Lion’s Mane Jellyfish, whose tentacles have been recorded up to 36.6m long. The smallest is thought to be the Irukani Jellyfish, which measures one cubic centimetre (1cm3).
Hydrozoa are small, predatory animals that can live solitarily or in colonies. Mostly, they are permanently attached to the substrate, but some are pelagic (free-swimming). The individual animals of colonial hydrozoa are called zooids and they can play different roles within the colony, such as digestion (gastrozooid), reproduction (gonophores) and tentacle-bearing zooids (dactylozooids).
Both jellyfish and hydrozoans are part of the phylum Cnidaria. Most species within this phylum have stinging cells called nematocysts, located mainly on the tentacles. True jellyfish, however, also have them around the mouth and in the stomach. Also called cnidocytes, these explosive cells deliver a structure containing toxins, which can act as a weapon against predators or to immobilise or kill prey.
Cnidarians are thought to be amongst the most important planktonic and benthic predators in the sea as, when abundant, they are major consumers of plankton, including fish larvae and crustaceans. They also prey on small fish and other jellyfish species. Most are planktonic creatures, unable to swim against the current ,and are therefore carried by the currents throughout the oceans. Because of this, they cannot actively hunt prey, so many species have developed incredibly long tentacles to increase their chances of catching food.
This blog covers the identifying features of a number of species of Jellyfish and hydrozoa you are likely to find in UK waters, as well as the seasons they are present.
Jellyfish
Moon Jellyfish (Aurelia aurita)
Aurelia aurita / Moon Jellyfish by Katya, via flickr.
Season: All year
What to look for: This species is translucent, with a white tinge to its bell. Its most recognisable feature is the four horseshoe shapes or circles visible through the top of its body. These are reproductive organs called gonads, and can range from white to purple in colour. Moon Jellyfish have thin, short tentacles hanging from the edges of the bell, as well as four feeding appendages called oral arms which surround the mouth beneath the bell.
Compass Jellyfish (Chrysaora hysoscella)
Compass Jellyfish (Chrysaora hysoscella) by Dale Simonson, via flickr.
Season: May to October
What to look for: Yellowish-white jellyfish with a brown fringe around the bell. Its name comes from the brown markings on the top of the bell, where v shapes radiate out from a central point, resembling a compass. Their oral arms are fringed, and they have long, thin tentacles around the edge of the bell.
Lion’s Mane Jellyfish (Cyanea capillata)
Lion’s Mane Jellyfish Cyanea capillata by gailhampshire, via flickr.
The lion’s mane jellyfish (Cyanea capillata) by Derek Keats, via flickr.
Season: May to October
What to look for: Translucent brown jellyfish, although it can also be reddish. The bell of this species has eight lobes, rather than being simply circular. This species has a thick ‘mane’ consisting of hundreds of hair-like tentacles attached to the bell’s subumbrella. They also have a number of frilly oral arms extending from around the mouth, which are shorter than the tentacles.
Did you know? The Lion’s Mane Jellyfish is one of the longest animals in the world; its tentacles can grow to over 30m long!
What to look for: The Barrel Jellyfish is a large translucent jellyfish, with a huge mushroom-shaped bell. They lack tentacles on the edges of their bell, but they do have a violet fringe containing sensory organs with eight frilly tentacles below this.
Blue Jellyfish (Cyanea lamarckii)
Bluefire jellyfish (Cyanea lamarckii) by Ann-Sophie Qvarnström, via flickr.
Season: May to October
What to look for: Also called the Bluefire Jellyfish, this species can vary in colouration depending on maturity, so may have a blue, purple or yellow tone. Yellow toned individuals may be confused with Lion’s Mane Jellyfish, however Blue Jellyfish can be distinguished by their smaller size and fewer tentacles. They can grow up to 30cm in length, although most individuals usually measure between 10–20cm. They can have a dark blue, circular, sun-like pattern on the top of their bell, as well as long marginal tentacles and several, frilly oral arms.
Mauve Stinger (Pelagia noctiluca)
Mauve Stinger Pelagia noctiluca by Don Loarie, via flickr.
Season: July to October, but dependent on weather and ocean currents
What to look for: This species has a dome-shaped bell that is covered in wart-like stinging cells and eight marginal tentacles emanating from the edges of the bell. They also have four long oral arms that also have wart-like nematocysts down one side; while the other side is crenulated, giving the arms a slightly frilly appearance. The colour of this species varies from mauve, pink and purple to light brown or yellow.
Hydrazoa
Portuguese Man o’ War (Physalia physalis)
Portuguese Man o’ War by 4Neus, via flickr.Portuguese man o’ war by Joi Ito, via flickr.
Season: September to December
What to look for: The Portuguese Man o’ War is not one animal, but a colony organism made up of four polyp types. The uppermost polyp is the gas-filled structure called the pneumatophore, which sits on the surface of the water and is the most visible. It is mostly transparent, with a blue, pink or purple tinge. The top edge of this structure resembles a sail. Two other polyps cooperate to allow the colony to hunt and feed: the polyp containing gastrozooids and the tentacles (dactylozooids). These tentacles can be a variety of colours, such as blue, purple or clear, and hang down below the surface. The final polyp type is the gonodendron, the compound reproductive structure that can be found hanging just below the pneumatophore. These can also vary in colour, and are often deep blue, pink or purple.
By-the-wind-sailor (Velalla velalla)
By-the-Wind Sailor by Philip McErlean, via flickr.
Season: September to March
What to look for: This species is also a colonial hydroid made up of multiple polyps, and contains gonozooids and dactylozooids. It has an oval disc that is deep blue in colour and acts as a float, with short tentacles hanging down from it. A semi-circular fan is set atop the float like a sail which aids its movement through the water via wind power.
Distinctively prickly with pink or purple flowers, thistles belong to the largest family of flowering plant in the UK (with the exception of the grasses) – Asteraceae. These common plants are found throughout Britain and Ireland, providing key services for invertebrates who seek safety in the sharp spines. The leaves and nectar of thistles are also excellent sources of food for other groups, including pollinators and Painted Lady caterpillars, and several bird species are known to eat the seeds.
Here we take a look at a selection of thistles found throughout the UK, highlighting their distribution and ways in which they may be identified.
ID Notes: This perennial flower is named for its far-reaching, creeping roots. The leaves are smooth and grey-green in colour, with wavy, spined edges. The stems are smooth, neither spined nor winged. The flowerheads produce small, pale pink flowers (1.5–2.5cm) in small clusters with pear-shaped bases covered with phyllaries pressed against the flowerhead, curving outwards.
Distribution: Widespread and common throughout Britain and Ireland. Creeping Thistles can be found from June to October on rough grassland, roadside verges and field edges – a preference for disturbed and cultivated ground is observed in this species.
ID Notes: This thistle is particularly attractive to pollinators, who are often seen feasting on the deep pink flowers. The large flowerheads (up to three may be present per stem) sit on a bulbous, spiked base with long, spreading phyllaries. The leaves of a Spear Thistle have long, lanceolate segments tipped with spines, and the upper surface is bristly. The stem is covered with light hair and sporadic spiny wings.
Distribution: Widespread and common throughout Britain and Ireland. It can be found from July to October on disturbed ground such as roadside verges, field edges and pastures.
Welted Thistle (Carduus crispus)
Welted Thistle by Joost J. Bakker IJmuiden via Flickr
ID Notes: This plant has small, red-purple flowerheads that are clustered together. The base of the flower head has spiny, protruding bracts and the phyllaries project outwards. The branched stems have several rows of spiny wings, and the leaves have broader lobes than is typical for other thistles, with spiny margins.
Distribution: Widespread throughout Britain, except Ireland. This species shows a preference for nutrient-enriched substrates, including brownfields, field margins, meadows and beside streams.
ID Notes: Growing up to 2m in height, this large thistle is easily identified by its purple tinge. The flowerheads are small and are found in large clusters, with small reddish-purple or white flowers and the phyllaries are pressed against the flower head, with tips facing downwards. Leaves are more slender and shorter, with hair visible on the upper surface, they are often tinged purple on the margins and have many spines.
Distribution: Widespread throughout Britain and Ireland, and can be found in marshes, damp grassland and meadows.
ID Notes: Each Meadow Thistle has one flower head on a cottony stem, growing up to 80cm tall–the solitary flower has purple-tipped, long bracts and the base covered with light, white hair. The stems arenot winged, and basal leaves are toothed in a rosette formation. The remaining leaves are finely toothed, without spines, and have light hair on top, with a white, cottony appearanceunderneath.
Distribution: Most common in the south of the UK, with strongholds in the south-west and south Wales. Meadow Thistles are scarce towards the north. They can be found in bogs, fens, grassland and meadows.
ID Notes: Growing up to 2m in height, the Musk Thistle is recognised for its greyish-green colour. The flowerheads are large (3–5cm across), often nodding to one side after maturity, and have long, spiny phyllaries and two-lipped petals. The leaves are short and twisted, with spines present on the toothy lobes and are often woolly underneath.
Distribution: Widespread throughout Britain, but absent from Scotland and Ireland. Most commonly found on calcareous soil from May to September.
Woolly Thistle (Cirsium eriophorum)
Woolly Thistle by Olive Titus via Flickr
ID Notes: The Woolly Thistle gets its name from its wool-like covering. The leaves are ladder-like and narrow, tipped with spines and are white underneath. The stems are wingless and are covered in cobweb-like hairs, producing a single large flowerhead. The phyllaries on the flower base are downward curved, spread throughout the cobwebbing.
Distribution: Widespread throughout Britain, with strongholds in the Yorkshire Wolds and the Isle of Wight. The ‘queen of thistles’ often prefers chalky soils.
Often perceived as a pesky weed in garden lawns, clovers are low-growing, common plants belonging to the family Fabaceae – also home to beans, peas and legumes. These drought resistant plants can be found throughout Britain and Ireland in a range of habitats and are key food sources for a number of pollinators.
Here we look at a selection of clovers found in Britain, highlighting their identifying characteristics and where they can be found.
ID Notes: A familiar ‘weed’ of grassy spaces, the White Clover is easily recognised for its distinctive trefoil leaves – three leaflets bearing white markings. The flowers are white, sometimes pink toward the tips, with rounded heads made of many tubular blooms. Left to grow, this plant can grow up to 40cm in height, and is associated with Common Blue Butterflies (Polyommatus icarus) and bumblebees.
Distribution: Common and widespread throughout Britain and Ireland. This plant can be found in grassy areas from May to October, including gardens, roadsides, meadows and parks.
ID Notes: Similar to White Clovers, this species has three green leaflets bearing white markings, often ‘V’ shaped. The rounded flower heads bear pink/red flowers, forming clusters that are 2–3cm across.
Distribution: Common and widespread throughout Britain and Ireland. This species will flower from May to October, and can be found in gardens, meadows, parks and roadsides. It is also sown as a fodder crop for livestock, so can be found in open pasture.
ID Notes: The Strawberry Clover has a densely packed flower head, brimming with pink-red pea-shaped flowers that turn darker throughout the growing season. The leaves have three leaflets, and the fruit resembles a pale raspberry.
Distribution: Common in the south-east of England, it is found both inland and at the coast. Throughout Wales and northern England, this plant is mostly found coastally. Strawberry Clover can be found in fields, gardens, grassland, woodland and rocky areas.
ID Notes: These pale pink flowers (2–3cm in size) are covered with small soft hairs giving it a cottony appearance, like a hare’s paw, as the name would suggest. The trifoliate leaves are divided into three leaflets, narrower than other clovers and covered in fine hair. The stalks are also covered in fine, white hair.
Distribution: Fairly common in England and Wales, with a preference for coastal areas. Hares-foot Clover is uncommon in Scotland and Ireland. It can be found from June to September in dry grasslands, meadows, sandy soils and coastal areas.
ID Notes: Up to 15mm across, the flowers of a Knotted Clover form pale pink (or white), ovoid flowerheads. The leaves are hairy on both sides and are divided into three toothed leaflets. This clover is easily distinguished by the knotting visible along the stem.
Distribution: Widespread throughout Britain. Mostly found flowering at coastal sites between May and July, it can be found on beaches, fields, grassland, meadows, roadsides and sand dunes.
ID Notes: A dense flowerhead up to 3.5cm across, the Zigzag Clover is similar to the Red Clover, except that it has darker, reddish-purple flowers and spreading flowerheads. The leaves are longer and narrower, with less hair than other clovers and the stem is distinctively zigzagged allowing for easy identification.
Distribution: Common in England, Wales and Scotland, except the far north. Zigzag Clover can be found from May to July in gardens, grassland, roadsides and verges, often on poor soil.
ID Notes: This plant produces dense, conical-shaped heads of vibrant red flowers. The blooms of Crimson Clover are very attractive to bees, forming a close association in spring and summer. The stem and leaves are hairy, the latter composed of three leaflets.
Distribution: Not commonly seen in Britain. This species is mostly found from May to September in grasslands, gardens, cliffsides and meadows in the south of the UK.
**** A long overdue recognition of the female wolf
The wolves reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park in 1995 are some of the best-studied mammals on the planet. Biological technician and park ranger Rick McIntyre has spent over two decades scrutinising their daily lives, venturing into the park every single day. Where his previous books focused on three notable alpha males, it is ultimately the females that call the shots and make the decisions with lasting consequences. This book is a long overdue recognition of the female wolf and continues this multigenerational saga.
If wolf 21, the subject of the second book, was the most famous male wolf in Yellowstone, then his granddaughter 06 (named after her year of birth, 2006) can safely be called the most famous female wolf. This fourth book picks up where the third book ended, covering the period 2009–2015. It tells 06’s life story, her untimely death, and the fate of one of her daughters. To refreshen your mind, some prefatory sections give a brief list of notable matriarchs through the years and a short history of the Druid Peak pack, which were the ancestors of 06.
The fact that wolves have unique characters is again confirmed here: 06 is a gorgeous wolf that has many suitors but, until age four, she rejects them all and is a rare example of a lone female wolf. Lone wolves, quite rare to begin with, are usually males in search of a new pack with unrelated females. In 2010 she forms the Lamar Canyon pack with two brothers younger than her: 754 and 755. Three successful years follow in which she has a litter of pups every year. Through a combination of fearlessness and wise choices, all pups survive their first year. A particular challenge is the nearby Mollie’s pack, led by an aggressive female, that starts making incursions into 06’s territory. There is a long-running feud between the Mollie’s and the very successful Druid Peak pack and its descendants, which can be traced back to 1996 when Druids killed several wolves of Mollie’s pack.
This book has the task of both continuing the story but also looking back. Several chapters end with boxes that briefly tell the story of other notable female wolves past and present. If you have read all or some of the previous trilogy, you know that the writing might not win prizes for its style. Instead, McIntyre distils thousands of days spent in the field and as many pages of notes into a deeply informed, unembellished eyewitness account of the daily lives of these wolves. He always clearly indicates where he reconstructs likely events not observed first-hand or imagines the inner lives of the wolves. As before, The Alpha Female Wolf is divided into parts that each cover a year, usually subdivided into several chapters. This time there are unfortunately no family trees included, which I would have found helpful, though the cast of characters remains manageable.
My impression is that this book contains more references to scientific research than the previous ones. There are observations on chronic wasting disease, contagious to elk, and how wolves are likely limiting its spread by selectively killing sick elk. McIntyre asks a wolf geneticist just how different the introduced wolves from Canada are from the original wolves that lived in this area, and gives some deeper insights into the genetic history of US wolf populations. And he speaks to two researchers studying wolf howling and how each individual produces unique harmonic overtones by which the wolves might recognize each other, to which McIntyre contributes some informal observations later in the book. There are also numerous interesting behavioural and natural history observations. Food features in particular, with chance observations of wolves feeding on eggs of ground-nesting birds, fruit from a rosebush, and the occasional beaver. McIntyre observes hunting sequences that show the wolves using the local terrain to their advantage.
McIntyre is on form in the first two-thirds of the book, detailing how 06’s fierceness and intelligence help her not only to survive but to thrive. She carefully chooses her partners to form a strong, cooperative team, while her choice of denning site under a natural rockfall provides superior protection from a raid by the Mollie’s pack. At various points in the book, McIntyre highlights how the actions and choices of 06 and others show the important role of alpha females in shaping pack life and pack dynamics in the park. Inspired by the many military veterans that visit Yellowstone, he draws a human parallel, describing the alpha female as a commanding officer while the alpha male is an executive officer carrying out her agenda.
How cruel, then, is the sudden death of first 754 and then 06 when they venture just outside park boundaries and are shot, legally, by hunters. I have to admit that I found this twist of fate really upsetting to read. Both McIntyre and the book never really recover from the blow. While the first three years (2010–2012) take up two-thirds of the book, the next three years (2013–2015) are covered in the remaining one-third. McIntyre commits himself to documenting the fall-out of these killings, which sees 755 go through several failed attempts at establishing a new family, and follows the fate of one of 06’s daughters, 926. Although there are happy endings of a sort, the lives of both these survivors are shot through with hardship and loss. Where the threat of hunting was only theoretical in the previous book, here it becomes reality with the removal of wolves from the endangered species list. Remarkably, even though the events have an emotional impact on both him and other wolf biologists and spotters, McIntyre continues to refrain from voicing his opinion or discussing in any depth the reasons for, and problems with, the hunting of wolves. He hints at the why of this when talking to a group of schoolchildren: “being a National Park Service employee in uniform, I could not voice a political opinion about wolf-hunting regulations outside the park” (p. 233). There is much here that remains unsaid, and Nate Blakeslee’s book The Wolf offers an outsider’s perspective on the whole situation that is well worth reading.
Ecologists know how important long-term research is, but also both how hard and rare it is. McIntyre’s decades-long commitment to observing the Yellowstone wolves, and then turning these into books for the general public, is commendable. The Alpha Female Wolf succeeds in both celebrating 06’s remarkably successful life and in indicating the important role of the female of this species. In a conversation with McIntyre last year, he mentioned one more book is planned that will cover events up to 2021. There are yet more stories to be told about these iconic animals and I am looking forward to immersing myself one more time in their lives.
***** A wonderful graphical introduction to the inner workings of an ant colony
This one grabbed my attention as soon as it was announced. Not a comic or graphic novel, but an A4-format book about ant colonies that is chock-a-block with infographics? Yes, please! Showcasing the best of what science illustration can be and combining it with a genuine outsider’s interest in entomology, The Ant Collective makes for a wonderful graphical introduction that will appeal to a very broad audience of all ages.
This book was originally published in German in 2022 as Das Ameisenkollektiv by Kosmos Verlag. It was quickly snapped up for translation into French and Spanish before Princeton University Press published it in English in 2024, courtesy of translator Alexandra Bird. Armin Schieb is a freelance science illustrator based in Hamburg, Germany, and this book is derived from his master’s thesis in Informative Illustration at the Hamburg University of Applied Sciences. His portfolio shows infographics, 3D models, and cover illustrations for a range of clients, from magazines to newspapers to publishers, but this book represents his first published work to date.
Based on direct observations, sketches, and photos of red wood ants (Formica rufa), Schieb has designed 61 highly detailed computer-generated illustrations showing ants from a bug’s eye perspective that entomologists can only dream of. The eight chapters each contain a mixture of full-page spreads with naturalistic 3D renderings of landscapes full of ants, and pages with numerous smaller infographics that explain how colonies function. Annotations are scattered throughout to provide context to what you are looking at. Neatly, many of the full-page spreads continue overleaf, forming eight-page tableaux. One can only imagine what they would have looked like if the publisher had included them as gatefolds!
Next to obligatory drawings introducing ant anatomy, the focus of this book is on colony-level behaviour, with chapters depicting nuptial flights, nest establishment and construction, seasonal cycles of nest maintenance, foraging, trail formation, food acquisition and defence, reproduction, nest defence, and the formation of new colonies. The clever use of cutaway illustrations reveals processes that normally play out unseen underground.
There are some memorable scenes in here showing e.g. green woodpeckers and boars raiding ant nests. The woodpecker illustration stands out in particular. Red wood ants defend themselves by spraying formic acid and are normally inedible. The birds, though, have turned the tables on the ants twice over, picking them up in their beak and rubbing them on their feathers where the ants discharge the contents of their poison glands. As an added bonus, the formic acid repels feather parasites. This whole story is illustrated by overlaying several semitransparent motion frames of a woodpecker twisting its head and is glorious to behold. Elsewhere, Schieb uses motion blur to good effect to highlight the action-packed nature of spiders and antlions catching hapless ants.
Needless to say, this book is full of fascinating titbits of information. Schieb explains the phenomenon of age polyethism that I first encountered in Ant Architecture. Young ants tend to stay inside or close to the nest, while older ants venture further out to do the dangerous job of foraging (though Ant Encounters for some criticism of this idea). Schieb (perhaps unwittingly) offers an excellent illustration of colony behaviour arising through interaction networks when he shows how foraging trails wax and wane as a function of behavioural interactions between ants. There is similarly a deft explanation of the anatomical details of the eyes that allow them to see both polarized and unpolarized light: straight or spiralling stacks of light-sensitive tubules. It is one of those concepts where a picture says more than a thousand words. The only criticism I have of this particular section is that I would have opened it with the otherwise excellent illustration explaining sky polarization. Additionally, I would have added an infographic that explains what polarized light actually is, as it is a surprisingly tricky phenomenon to explain. Michael Land’s book Eyes to See contains a good picture, whereas Schieb basically takes it as a given that readers will understand what he means when writing that “almost all photons in a polarized light ray vibrate in the same plane” (p. 64).
The promotional blurb for the book mentions it draws on the latest science though I was left somewhat confused when I finished it. Schieb is obviously not an entomologist but a graphic artist. There is no mention of the project having benefited from one or several entomologists acting as consultants to give the contents the once-over for scientific accuracy. There is no acknowledgements section where Schieb credits scientists for advice and input. There is not even a list of references or recommended reading included. Or is there? Since I do not have access to the German original I had to resort to some online sleuthing and found a preview on Amazon.de that includes the reference list on p. 126. This reveals that, yes, he has consulted books and scientific papers in both English and German, including that evergreen The Ants, an older edition of Insect Physiology and Biochemistry, and both specialist and general German books on forest insects. So, Schieb did his homework, Kosmos referenced it, but for some bizarre reason, Princeton simply omitted it, as the page between 125 and 127 is… blank! Did I just happen to receive a dud to review? Checking eight other copies at our warehouse confirmed that, no, this is a feature, not a bug. Hopefully, if there are future print runs, this is a detail that can be rectified, as it could easily leave readers with the wrong impression.
Over the years, I have reviewed some seriously impressive photographic books on ants, covering amongst others army ants, desert ants, and myrmecophiles. Despite being a slimmer volume written for a general audience, The Ant Collective rubs shoulders with the greats where visual content is concerned. This is a feast for the eyes that will lure newcomers into entomology but should also please seasoned myrmecologists.
A final thing to note is that this book tells the biology of a *single* species. Wood ants are well-studied as far as ants go, but as the subtitle indicates, this is a look inside the world of *a* ant colony. It would be a mistake to come away from this book thinking that this is how colonies of all ant species function. The world of ants is one of bewildering diversity, though themes and unifying principles are starting to emerge.
Global temperatures have hit 1.5°C above the pre-industrial era average for 12 consecutive months. Analysed by the Copernicus Climate Change Service, data revealed that July 2023 – June 2024 were the hottest 12 consecutive months on record – an average 1.64°C higher when compared to the pre-fossil fuel era (1850–1900). Analysis suggests that these results are not an anomaly but are instead consistent with a shift in the global climate.
A court has ruled that the rights of the Machángara river have been violated in Ecuador. The ruling was based on constitutional rights for natural features, where Ecuadorian authorities recognise the rights of natural features to remain unpolluted and undegraded. A wide range of contaminants and pollutants are released into the river, including untreated wastewater and litter, resulting in an average oxygen content of 2% which has inhibited the survival of aquatic life in the region. Although the ruling has been appealed by the city government, the court has ruled that a remediation plan will be required.
Science
Researchers have identified artificial light on coastlines as another threat for marine ecosystems. A study has shown that artificially lit areas can attract 2–3 times more fish compared to areas of natural lighting. It is thought that juvenile fish are attracted to congregations of plankton in these well-lit areas and are picked off by predators who are also attracted to the light. Nearly a quarter of the world’s coastline was artificially lit when it was last surveyed almost a decade ago, and the extent of the lighting is likely to have continued to increase since then. This issue has the potential to impact the breeding success of a range of marine species.
Ants have been found to amputate the legs of their nest-mates to boost survival. Researchers have found that Florida Carpenter Ants (Camponotus floridanus) will perform life-saving amputations on others, the first non-human animal found to do so. The colony was also found to cater their choice of care to the injury at hand and were observed ‘treating’ injuries through intensive licking. Ultimately, a survival rate of 90% was observed following amputation, and 75% with treated wounds. These ants are one of the few animals, aside from humans, that have been found to actively tend to the injuries of their own species.
For the first time, we are farming more seafood through aquaculture than we catch from the wild. The 2024 State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (SOFIA) report was released in June and reported that overfishing increased and sustainable fishing declined over 2024 (+4% and –2%, respectively), while overall production rose by over 4%, producing an all-time high of 223 million metric tons of fish. The SOFIA report concluded that progress towards more sustainable fisheries is not moving fast enough, or has regressed to less sustainable practices, and global fisheries management is failing to support these practices when harvesting wild fish stocks.
Wildlife
Bee colonies in north east England are suffering from the worst disease outbreak in a decade. American Foulbrood (AFB) has been reported in more than 30 colonies in a 10km area, the biggest outbreak since 2014. The disease is caused by bacteria that infect the bee larvae, eventually spreading through the hive and resulting in the death of the colony. A spokesperson from the Cleveland Beekeepers Association has labelled the outbreak as ‘worrying’ but believes the disease is under control.
Bull Moose by Denali National Park and Preserve via Flickr
Human-wildlife conflicts are emerging in Colorado as Moose (Alces americanus) populations extend their range. Introduced to the state in the 1970’s, Moose are now moving into more urban areas from the woodlands and mountain ranges across the state, increasing the frequency of deadly human-wildlife conflicts. The number of recorded Moose attacks each year surpasses the number of puma and bear attacks combined, though Moose are less abundant in the area. Colorado reported three incidents in a fortnight in 2022, and over 59 animals were killed in road traffic accidents that same year. At risk of reaching unsustainable levels, the species could be subject to culling and contraceptive intervention in the future to prevent damage to the landscape and its keystone species.
Recently, Wildlife Acoustics and Bat Conservation International partnered together to host a webinarhighlighting the use of bioacoustics in bat conservation across the globe. The webinar featured three case studies tackling the impacts of white-nose syndrome, habitat loss and climate change with the help of bioacoustic technology. Here, we provide a summary of these case studies and the applications of acoustic monitoring in these investigations.
Florida USA, Dr. Melquisedec Gamba-Rios
Endemic to the region, the Florida Bonneted Bat (Eumops floridanus) is increasingly threatened by habitat loss from sea level rise and destructive development. This species has one of the smallest ranges in Southern Florida and utilises old tree cavities and large, open spaces for roosting and feeding. Dr. Gamba-Rios and his team sought to identify critical habitat for this endangered species using bioacoustics, hoping to support their fragile populations.
The team used acoustic recorders to identify key roosting and feeding areas for the species. Interestingly, they found that Miami’s zoo, golf courses and tropical parks had high numbers of Florida Bonneted Bat calls. The research showed that the large, open areas surrounded by forest and absence of artificial light of these locations provided an ideal foraging space for the species.
Since these bats require older, cavitied trees, the habitat of the group is at risk as development increases. Plans for water park construction were proposed on a key site for this species, however the evidence gathered here was used to challenge the proposal, resulting in its rejection to protect key bat habitat.In March 2024, over 1.1 million acres of critical habitat were designated for the species in Florida, including foraging areas in urban habitat and over 4,000 acres of Miami Pine Rocklands. Federally protected species are known to be twice as likely to move toward recovery than those without protection, so the designation of these spaces is incredibly important in securing the future of this species.
Florida Bonneted Bat by Florida Fish and Wildlife via Flickr
Nyungwe National Park, Dr. Jon Flanders
Last seen in 1981, the Hill’s Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus hilli) was considered a ‘lost’ species in Rwanda. In January 2019, a group of scientists and researchers, including Dr. Jon Flanders, set out on a 10-day expedition in Nyungwe National Park, looking to rediscover this elusive animal.
Nyungwe National Park rangers played a key role in the early stages of this project, identifying caves and key habitat for bats in the area. The rangers conducted acoustic monitoring using SM4 Acoustics to identify foraging and roosting areas, collecting over 260,000 files of acoustic data.Eight of these recordings successfully detected the calls of the Hill’s Horseshoe Bat, found in small, defined ranges. During the 10-day trip, the team worked relentlessly to catch, measure and collect DNA samples from bats using mist nets and harp traps in these locations. The team successfully captured two Hill’s Horseshoe Bats and confirmed the capture of this critically endangered species with museum archive specimens. The expedition highlighted the spectacular diversity of Nyungwe National Park which features a large number of rare and endemic species, and these findings reinforce the parks importance as a biodiversity hotspot.
Little Brown Bat with white-nose syndrome by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service via Flickr
White-nose Syndrome, Dr. Amanda Adams
White-nose syndrome is a cold-loving, infectious fungal disease found in bats. The fungus manifests in a total skin infection, most visible around the muzzle of the animal.This infection is responsible for significant mortality in several species, where the infection causes bats to wake often during hibernation – burning their fat stores, causing dehydration and starvation. Infected bats can expend up to twice the amount of energy as healthy individuals during hibernation, severely impacting their ability to survive the winter.Because of this, six million animals have succumbed to this infection so far, impacting 12 out of 44 species found in the USA.
Dr. Amanda Adams sought to use bioacoustics to enhance the management of foraging habitat to support these species through hibernation. The team used the Song meter mini to search for the presence of bats and observe their feeding behaviours. They found that feeding behaviours were observed up to three times more in prey patches, and this allowed researchers to designate feeding habitats for affected species. The survey will be used to inform vegetative management on passing corridors, aiming to increase the productivity of foraging areas to support the health of infected bats.
The ‘Going to Bat for Bioacoustics’webinarprovided an engaging insight into the applications of acoustic monitoring in bat research, showing how the technology can be used to support bat conservation. To learn more, the Wildlife Acoustics website has a range of training courses and webinars.Upcoming events can be found here.
This beautifully illustrated book provides a comprehensive gardener’s guide to sustainable beekeeping. It reveals the pleasures and benefits of keeping bees in gardens of all sizes in both rural and urban areas, explains the practicalities of this widely enjoyed hobby and lists the top performing plants that will help your colony thrive. Beekeeping for Gardeners also discusses the hobby of beekeeping within the wider environment and questions how it can meet the needs of all species of pollinators, as well as it’s potential contribution to the local ecology.
Richard Rickitt is an award-winning author as well as co-editor of the UK’s best-selling beekeeping magazine BeeCraft. He has been an avid beekeeper for over 20 years, maintaining numerous hives for both commercial and private clients as well as his own, looks after the bees at the National Arboretum, and teaches beekeeping courses across the UK as well as abroad.
Richard recently took the time out of his busy schedule to talk to about Beekeeping for Gardeners, including what inspired him to write a book aimed at gardeners, what the future of Honey Bees in Britain looks like and more.
Firstly, could you tell us a little bit about yourself and what prompted you to write a beekeeping book aimed specifically at gardeners?
I grew up on a Somerset smallholding, so my heart is in the countryside. I always loved wildlife and my bedroom was like a miniature Natural History Museum filled with bird’s nests, animal skulls and a menagerie of frogs, newts, caterpillars and anything else I could catch and keep. One day I peeked through a garden hedge to spy on an old beekeeper at work. The white hives, sparkling clouds of bees and puffing smoker seemed mysterious and magical. I suspect that I have a very romanticised image of the scene in my mind, although even now when tending my bees I am often struck by what a bucolic activity it can be. Later, I learned beekeeping at my secondary school which had an excellent rural studies department – I’m not sure if such things exist anymore, which is a terrible shame. I went on to work in film and television special effects, but after moving from London to Wiltshire about 18 years ago, I took up beekeeping again. I became increasingly involved in the beekeeping community, eventually becoming co-editor of BeeCraft, the UK’s bestselling beekeeping magazine, which is now in its 105th year.
I wrote a book aimed at gardeners because many of the people attending my beekeeping courses are already gardeners and want to know more about the bees that they see visiting their flowers. By starting out as gardeners, new beekeepers are already doing one of the most important things that anyone can do for bees; providing them with the resources and habitats that they need. But sometimes a little extra knowledge and small changes in the way you garden can make a huge difference to the sustainability of your local bee populations. For example, some species of solitary bee depend on a single, specific variety of flower.
Keeping honey bees dovetails very nicely with gardening; it’s a seasonal activity done mostly in good weather in spring and summer. Time spent in the garden can be time spent tending both plants and bees, enjoying watching them develop and interact through the year. Gardeners enjoy choosing what plants best work in their garden and if you are a beekeeper there can be the added pleasure of planting specifically for bees and seeing them make use of what you have provided. There are practical benefits too; fruit and vegetable crops will be better pollinated, resulting in more and higher-quality produce. And, of course, there can be the reward of a crop of delicious honey and even wax with which to make candles or cosmetics. Like gardening, beekeeping is a lovely hobby to share as a couple or family – each person often finding their own areas of interest, and sharing the work, discoveries and pleasures.
So, my book is for anyone who loves gardens and is interested in learning about and helping bees of all kinds. They might want to create a beautiful garden with the most appropriate plants, habitat and nesting opportunities for wild bees, or take things further and keep a hive or two of honey bees.
I really liked how the book provided not only a comprehensive guide to beekeeping on a small scale but is also an exceptional resource of information on growing flowering plants and creating habitats for bumblebees, solitary bees and insects of all kinds. Do you think traditional beekeeping advice has tended to be very focused on the Honey Bee itself with less of an emphasis on providing the habitat it requires to thrive?
Beekeepers have always very carefully noted which plants flower near their bees,aswell as the quality and quantity of honey that their bees produce as a result. However, the presence of such resources has generally been taken for granted;the beekeeper only having to look after the bees while it was assumed that nature would provide the rest. Increasingly, because of habitat loss, climate change and pollution, the necessary resources aren’talways there. Today’s beekeepers therefore have to think not only about caring for their bees, but also about caring for the environment in which their bees live. That includes growing more of the right plants but also considering whether their bees might have a negative impact on the local environment and the other species it supports.Most beekeepers begin their hobby for environmental reasons and try have a positive impact.
How do you think beekeeping fits within the broader context of conservation, given that the honey bee isconsidered by some as not native to Britain and may spread diseases to or compete with other important wild pollinators?
This is a great question involvingseveral complex issues,soI’m afraid it requires quite a long reply.
The first point is the erroneous but increasingly commonly held belief that the honey beeis not a UK native species. The oldest fossil of a true honey bee(Apis species) comes from Germany and is about 25 million years old.The distribution of such bees, along with all species of plant and animal, will have fluctuated drastically over the millennia in response to changes in geography,environment and climate. However,when the ice retreated at the end of the last ice age, some 10,000 years ago, what is now called Britain was still connected to the European continent. This allowed the spread northwards of animals and plants. Honey bees naturally live in tree cavities and undoubtedly would have spread into Britain as trees began to grow here.Then, when sea levels rose about 6000 years ago, Britain became an island. This is the cutoff point at which species alreadyestablished and subsequently isolatedhere are generally consideredto be native.That would certainly have included honey bees as well as the hundreds of other species of bumblebee and solitary bee that we now consider to belong here. So, I think there is no doubt that honey beesarein fact native. Indeed, there is archaeologicalevidence of the presence of honey bees in Britian dating backthousands of years. For example, the remains of venison cooked with honey were found in Bronze Age artifacts recently unearthed in Peterborough. There is no such archaeological evidence for the presence of any species of solitary bee or bumblebee in Britain at that time, although I wouldn’tquestion that most of those are also native. For more about the evidence of the honey bee as a native species, I would recommend reading anacademic paper by Norman Careck of Sussex University.
Many of the bumblebeeand solitary bee speciesfound in Britain are also foundon the continent and are considered native in both places. However, thehoney bee, also naturally present on both sides of the channel, is currently claimed by a few people to be non-native in Britian.This contradictoryclaim only seems to have come about in the last decade or so and isperhaps partlybecause of ahistory of commercial importation of honey bees from the European mainland into Britian.Such imports have been made for three reasons; firstly, because in the early twentieth century many of our wild and managed honey bee colonies died as a result of a disease then known as the Isle of Wight disease – so much so that the production of pollinated farm crops was thought to be threatened; secondly, it was thought that the slightly different genetic traits of honey bees from elsewhere could be used to produce more disease-resistant and productive honey bees in the UK; and thirdly, because commercial beekeepers whose bees pollinate crops in spring often require new queens to replace those that have died overwinter – and the British climate makes it impossible to raise new queens here until later in the season.The result has been an influx of honey bee queens from Europe. These bees are the same species as has existed here for thousands of years (Apis mellifera)but they have evolved into regional subspecies because of the slightly differing environmental conditions where they live.Honey bees living in Italy will experience a very different climate and flowering plants to those living in Scotland, for example. The result is that many of our honey beesnow have a mixture of genes hailing from different places.
Some hobby beekeepers today are against the importation of honey bees and increasingly favour what are known as local bees.These are bees raised from colonies that survive and thrive in a relatively small geographical area, without the addition of new genetic characteristics from bees imported from abroad or elsewhere within the UK – they are ecotypes.The actual genetic makeup might be a mixture of all sorts, depending on what is already in an area, but studies have shown that, over time, the native genetic element tends to dominate.There are some areas of the UK where the genetics of local honey bee populations are very highly native.However, as climate change worsens, adaptability will be key to the survival of all species of animal and plant; it might be that genetic traits from imported honey bees are what eventually give our honey bees the ability to survive in unstable climatic conditions.In my book, I urge beginner beekeepers to buy new bees and queens from a local beekeeper who has kept the same bees in the same place for decades, these honey bees will probably be best suited to your area.
Now for the second part of the question, which is also complicated but I will try to keep things brief.There are several diseases that appear to be shared in one form or another by various types of bee. Research into these diseases, their effects and transmissibility, is at the early stages with very few definitive conclusions at the moment.One disease, called nosema, is a kind of fungus that affects the gut of a bee. This is found in both honey bees and bumblebees. It is thought that this first evolved in butterflies, and has since been passed on to bees, which can be spread from one species to anotherperhaps by sharing the same flower resources.One of the biggest threats to honey bees is the presence of varroa, a tiny parasitic mite that can spread various pathogens when feeding from the bodies of developing honey bee pupae. It’s not yet clear which of these pathogens can spread to other species of bee which are not in themselves hosts to varroa.
There are a lot of uncertainties, and it is by no means clear that honey bees are a significant disease danger to other species of bee, or the reverse. However, it highlights the importance of beekeepers fully understanding the biology and lifecycle of honey bees, andtheir diseases and predators. This will enable them to keep healthy bees that are better able bothto resist diseases and minimise the chances of spreading them to other species. Reading my book is a good way to begin understanding how to keep healthy honey bees, and indeed if beekeeping is really for you. After that, I strongly suggest joining your local beekeeping association and signing up for a training course.
Finally, and referring to the first part of your question, you asked about where beekeeping fits into conservation more broadly. The fact is that because beekeepers generally do a good job of looking after them, honey bees are not currently under threat – despite being subject to many of the same pressures as solitary bees and bumblebees. There was a great deal of worry some years ago when huge numbers of honey bees died for largely unknown reasons, but those problems are now generally under control. We shouldn’t be complacent, however; there are still a great many threats to honey bees and the climate crisis poses lots of potential problems.
I consider honey bees to be the ‘gateway bee’. Many people who have never had a very close relationship to wildlife or the natural world are attracted to beekeeping as a fascinating and rewarding hobby – sometimes at first they don’t even understand the difference between honey bees and other bees. Once they are acquainted with honey bees, such people often want to learn more about the other species of bee, ultimately taking part in conservation measures and becoming bee ambassadors, spreading the word about the importance and fragility of bee populations generally and appreciating the importance of plant life and biodiversity in general.
Beekeeping within the UK appears to be a thriving pastime and, throughout the Covid pandemic in particular, it seems that many were inspired to take it up as a hobby. Could we reach a situation where we have too many beekeepers?
It’s thought that in the UK there are about a quarter of the number of honey bee colonies there were in the 1950’s, and far fewer than might have been present naturally a few thousand years ago – a natural density of about one colony per square kilometre is estimated by renowned bee scientist, Professor Tom Seeley. But although we may have fewer honey bees now, we also have a hugely degraded environment that is much less capable of supporting bees of all kinds.
There was a huge drop in the number of beekeepers and bee colonies in the mid-1990s, with membership of the British Beekeeper’s Association (BBKA) dropping to just 7000. When the media began to highlight the problems being experienced by honey bees, particularly due to so-called colony collapse disorder, the number of beekeepers began to rise again. As you say, numbers increased somewhat during the pandemic, too. Today there are about 27,000 members of the BBKA. That number seems to be levelling off and I wouldn’t be surprised if it has reached a peak. There are new beekeepers every year, of course, but people also drop out of the hobby at about the same rate as they join.
I think it is unlikely therefore that we will have too many beekeepers overall, but I do think that the distribution of beekeepers and their bees is a matter of possible concern. Beekeeping has become popular in large cities, and although suburban areas with their dense patterns of small gardens containing a wide variety of plants – not to mention parks, allotments and railway embankments – can provide plenty of bee habitat, city centres are often extremely poor places for supporting bees and other pollinators. The trend for putting beehives on top of city centre office buildings is highly questionable when there are so few flowering plants nearby. There are also a few rural areas with particularly fragile populations of rare bee species where it might be unwise to keep honey bees. A very high density of honey bees in any area could increase the chances of disease transmission – as discussed in the previous question. These are all issues discussed in my book.
Overall, I believe that thoughtful beekeeping is environmentally beneficial. Although you can place bee hotels in your garden and plant gardens to attract bees, there is nothing quite like learning about and witnessing the extraordinary lifecycle of a honey bee colony for opening people’s eyes, minds and hearts to the breathtakingly complex and beautiful natural history of bees and pollinators in general.
With constant monitoring in place for the arrival of pests such as Tropilaelaps mites as well as the current spread of the Yellow Legged Hornet (commonly referred to as the Asian Hornet), are you broadly optimistic for the future of Honey Bees in Britain?
It seems likely that the Asian Hornet (Vespa velutina) might finally have a toehold in the UK and we could have a small breeding population. Until now, APHA (Animal and Plant Health Agency) and the National Bee Unit have done a great job tracing nests and destroying them, but if the population increases exponentially, it will be impossible to control – as has been the case in France and other places.
It is hard to say exactly how the arrival of the Asian Hornet will affect British beekeeping although, as with the arrival of Varroa Mites in the 1990s, I suspect there will be a steep decline in the number of people keeping bees. Chris Packham recently said that having Asian hornets might only mean the loss of a few teaspoonfuls of honey, but I strongly disagree with this sentiment. One nest of Asian hornets can consume 11.5 kg of insects in a season – that’s hundreds of thousands of insects. Perhaps people don’t mind if those insects are honey bees, but when the honey bees run out, other bees, wasps, flies, butterflies and so-on could become the target prey. Imagine how that might affect birds and other animals that rely on those insects – not to mention the crops that they pollinate. And bear in mind that one Asian hornet nest can produce 300 queens resulting in hundreds of new nests the following year.
Tropelaelaps, and particularly Small Hive Beetle, are two other potentially very problematic invasive pests. They haven’t been found here yet and there are import controls and a system of sentinel apiaries to try to prevent or detect their arrival. There are contingency plans to prevent their spread should they arrive but there are a lot of unknown factors. Climate change makes the possible arrival and spread of these exotic species more concerning.
I’m broadly optimistic about the future of beekeeping in the UK but there will be challenges and changes.
Finally, although I’m sure your job as editor of BeeCraft magazine, as well as your public speaking engagements must keep you incredibly busy (alongside the actual beekeeping of course!), we’d love to know if you have plans for further books?
I have lots of ideas for other bee-related books, some practical and some a bit more esoteric. Whether I’ll ever find time to write them, and in particular take the photographs for them, is another matter. At the moment,I’mglad to have finished this book and I am enjoying watching bees and visiting gardens without feeling the need to make notes and take photos – although my camera is never very far away…
The promotional blurb for the book mentions it draws on the latest science though I was left somewhat confused when I finished it. Schieb is obviously not an entomologist but a graphic artist. There is no mention of the project having benefited from one or several entomologists acting as consultants to give the contents the once-over for scientific accuracy. There is no acknowledgements section where Schieb credits scientists for advice and input. There is not even a list of references or recommended reading included. Or is there? Since I do not have access to the German original I had to resort to some online sleuthing and found a preview on Amazon.de that includes the reference list on p. 126. This reveals that, yes, he has consulted books and scientific papers in both English and German, including that evergreen The Ants, an older edition of Insect Physiology and Biochemistry, and both specialist and general German books on forest insects. So, Schieb did his homework, Kosmos referenced it, but for some bizarre reason, Princeton simply omitted it, as the page between 125 and 127 is… blank! Did I just happen to receive a dud to review? Checking eight other copies at our warehouse confirmed that, no, this is a feature, not a bug. Hopefully, if there are future print runs, this is a detail that can be rectified, as it could easily leave readers with the wrong impression.
Richard Rickitt is an award-winning author as well as co-editor of the UK’s best-selling beekeeping magazine 
