Artificial nests raise hopes that golden eagles will be able to breed in southern Scotland. Two eyries were placed high in trees on a private estate near where three young eagles have been spotted. More than 17 privately owned estates support the South of Scotland Golden Eagle project and a series of translocations have increased the area’s population from a few pairs to 38. This is the highest number recorded for three centuries.
New data shows that 48% of UK bird species declined between 2015 and 2020. Woodland birds were shown to be faring the worst, with a 12% decline. The Environment Act passed into law in 2021, requiring a halt in species decline by 2030 but campaigners believe radical changes to government policy are needed if this target is going to be met.
The number of critically endangered fish species in Australia has doubled. Nine new species are now thought to be on the brink of extinction with calls for urgent action to control invasive freshwater species. Invasive trout have caused the ranges of many of these fish to be reduced to extremely small areas, with many only having one population left.
Climate change
The UK’s insulation scheme would take 300 years to meet government targets to reduce fuel poverty, according to critics. The Great British Insulation Scheme aims to insulate 300,000 homes a year over the next three years but does not go far enough to reach the 19 million homes that need better insulation. Home insulation grants are thought to be a crucial part of the government’s plan to have a net-zero economy by 2050.
Global ocean surface temperatures are at the highest since records began. The average temperature is at around 21.1C since the start of April, with the previous highest being 21C in 2016. This rise in temperature will likely lead to more extreme weather and marine storms, as well as polar ice caps melting and coral bleaching.
Coral bleaching in Hawaii by Caitlin Seaview Survey via Wikimedia Commons
Wildlife crime
Roughly 1,000 pounds of illegally caught shark was seized in Texas. A recent study shows that humans are to blame for the 70% decline in sharks and rays, and that overfishing must be stopped or they could go extinct. Texas banned the trade of shark fins in 2015 but the state has long been a hot spot for shark fishing and trade.
The Forest Guide Scotland is an invaluable guide to 365 of Scotland’s most beautiful, historic and nature-filled woodlands. Ranging from tiny urban copses to sprawling forests, each site is listed by name and location and includes detailed access information and a description of its main features. An essential guide for anyone living in or visiting Scotland, the book is illustrated throughout with the author’s stunning photographs which document the huge variety of plants and animals that can be found within Scotland’s forests.
Gabriel Hemery is an author, photographer and biologist whose life’s passion is the study of trees, forests and silviculture practices. He is the author of several books including two novels, two short story collections and a poetry anthology. His first non-fiction book, The New Silva, was inspired by horticulturist and diarist John Evelyn’s Sylva, which was published in 1664 and provided readers with the first comprehensive study of British trees.
His latest book, The Forest Guide Scotland, is the first of a three part series focusing on the beauty, purpose, history, wildlife and ownership of some of the most extraordinary woodland sites in Britain.
It is clear you have an incredible passion for trees, woods and forests, and they have been the focus of much of your life’s work. Your latest book, The Forest Guide Scotland, is very much aimed at getting the public out into the forests of Scotland. What made you want to write this book in particular?
I’ve wanted to write a guide to the forests of Britain for some time. At a basic level, I felt this would work well alongside my previous work The New Sylva which concentrated more on how to care for trees and forests than their character and location. More deeply, I am concerned by the increasing disconnection between modern society and the natural world. Only through seeing and experiencing, can we hope to inspire understanding and ultimately caring. As a proud forester, I was also keen on dispelling some of the myths about modern forest management, which plays so many crucial roles today in promoting wildlife, improving landscapes, cleaning our air and protecting us from floods, and of course producing timber to replace manmade materials which are harming our environment.
Scotland is a wonderfully diverse place with a beautiful language and cultural history. As someone who embodies the role of artist as well as scientist, did you enjoy the process of finding out about the history, names and traditions of each location throughout your research for this book?
I have loved the landscape and culture of Scotland ever since I first visited as a young boy (when I was so disappointed not to spot an osprey). Researching and conducting fieldwork for this guidebook in so many incredible locations across the country was simply a huge privilege. I learnt a lot about the Gaelic language and the names of trees and landscape features, which I began to recognise as I studied maps. I can’t say my pronunciation of some of them improved however, but everyone I met was very understanding!
Scotland differs from both England and Wales in that it offers its public the ‘right to roam’. Do you feel that restrictions on roaming affect how people perceive and appreciate the wild spaces within their country?
Definitely. Most people probably fear that they may not be allowed to roam in forests, or are unclear of the difference between a public right of way and other forms of access. This undoubtedly means that some people may be put off from exploring woods or forests on their doorstep, let alone when travelling to areas they know less well. While they explore a forest, they may also be nervous that they may be doing something wrong, which will certainly affect their enjoyment.
Writing the guide for Scotland was certainly relatively easy when it came to describing access to forests, while of course explaining responsible behaviour, for example how to avoid disturbing wildlife, being safe during the hunting season, or being a responsible dog owner. In the next guides, which will cover Wales and England, I have a much more difficult task. Many potentially interesting sites are simply beyond reach to the public unless there is a public right of way (e.g. a footpath) or it is part of the public forest estate.
Climate change is a huge issue for every habitat and ecosystem on the planet. What do you think are the main challenges that Scotland’s forests are likely to face in the coming decades? And how well equipped are we to cope with or mitigate these?
Thanks for raising this topic which is personally very important to me, and of course to life on Earth. As a scientist, I have conducted international research on the topic of trees and climate change, and currently I chair a partnership of 16 organisations which seeks to address the urgency of adapting our forests to a changing climate.
Across Britain, our climate will change dramatically, generally becoming wetter and milder in winter, and drier and hotter in summer. Naturally, trees species and associated wildlife will want to migrate northwards to stay within their ideal conditions. Not only does human land use make this very difficult (e.g. competition with agriculture and urban areas) for many species of mammals and plants, but the rate of change is too fast for trees. Trees are individually immobile but do ‘move’ between generations by producing seeds which are dispersed a short distance by wind and other means. If you consider that most trees don’t produce seeds until they are several decades old, it can take a century or more for a tree to move even one kilometre., This is far too slow to keep pace with our changing climate. Scientists believe that our climate zones are moving at up to 5km every year.
There is also a more immediate concern for our trees with increasing threats from pests and diseases. Climate change is making conditions more favourable for many new and invasive bugs and pathogens which affect our trees.
It’s not all doom and gloom. A warming climate will help some trees become more effective at reproducing, provide more suitable conditions for some species which have struggled in the past, and even improve timber yields.
Do you have a favourite forest or woodland from those featured in this book? Or do any stand out particularly in your memory?
Having to choose a favourite forest site from 365 is no easy task! I have so many wonderful memories from my fieldwork for the guidebook. If I were to pick any, I suppose they reflect my own interests in nature and my love of remote places. The Caledonian pinewoods at Glen Quoich near Inverey were stunning and it was encouraging to see so much natural tree regeneration thanks to the effective control of red deer. I was humbled by the passion and dedication of the many community woodland groups across Scotland.
Visiting Berriedale Wood on Orkney was an unforgettable experience, where the trees literally cling to life above the dramatic sea cliffs. I would also have to give a special mention to Inchie Wood near the Port of Mentieth where I had some of the best viewing experiences of my life watching ospreys hunting and nesting.
In 2009 you founded the Sylva Foundation charity, which aims to promote the good stewardship of woodlands through training, knowledge transfer and advocacy. Can you tell us a little bit more about the charity and the work it does?
Sylva Foundation is a charity active across Britain, supporting landowners in managing woods and forests to the best of their ability. We have developed innovative software called myForest which helps them map their woodlands, and complete plans and inventories. Some exciting developments are in the making which will enable landowners to collaborate with scientists to help study environmental change in the woods and forests under their care. Our headquarters is in Oxfordshire where we have a Wood Centre dedicated to supporting people who work in wood to establish thriving businesses. We also run a Wood School helping train a future generation of skilled craftspeople. Readers can find out more at sylva.org.uk.
Finally, as an already well-published author I presume you might have plans for further books? Are there any projects that you are able to tell us about that you’re looking forward to at the moment?
TheForest Guide Scotland is the first of a tryptic, so I am working currently on the guide for Wales (to be published in 2024/5) while the England guide is due out the year after that (all titles with Bloomsbury Wildlife). I am always on the lookout for forest sites to include, and I even have a book patron scheme, so I am keen to hear from potential supporters. Readers can find out more at: gabrielhemery.com/forest-guide.
I am also working on a new book titled The Tree Almanac 2024: A Seasonal Guide to the Woodland World which will be published by Robinson Books this November.
The Forest Guide Scotland was published by Bloomsbury Publishing in April 2023 and is available from nhbs.com.
The Spring 2023 issue of Conservation Land Management (CLM) is now out, the first of volume 21, which marks CLM’s 20th year in existence. This issue features an exciting addition to CLM, a brand new Habitat Management for Invertebrates series, beginning with two articles. The remaining articles in this issue cover a range of subjects, including ghost pond restoration and the removal of weirs and dams to improve river habitats – read a summary of the articles below.
The new Habitat Management for Invertebrates series aims to encourage those who are involved in making management decisions on a site to consider invertebrates. In the series’ first article, Roger Morris, Keith Alexander and Robert Wolton highlight the key factors that site managers need to think about when incorporating invertebrates into management plans, discussing the types of data that are most useful and how to interpret these data.
The next article in the series goes on to focus specifically on the management of Aspen forests in the Scottish Highlands. There are around 15 rare or notable species of fly that are associated with the decaying cambium layer under the bark of dead Aspen, the Aspen Hoverfly Hammerschmidtia ferruginea being one of these. The Aspen Hoverfly is considered a flagship species – the correct management for the Aspen Hoverfly benefits several other key species. The priority in management is to make sure that there is a fresh supply of dead wood, and Iain MacGowan describes how this achieved in a way that provides optimal conditions for Aspen Hoverfly larvae, by either moving snapped branches with a diameter over 25cm closer to ground or by bringing in dead wood from adjacent sites. Look out for more articles in the Habitat Management for Invertebrates series in future issues of CLM.
Aspen in the Scottish Highlands. Iain MacGowan/NMS
Only 1% of the rivers in England, Wales and Scotland are free from artificial barriers, which pose a major threat to river wildlife. They lead to habitat fragmentation, interrupt the flow of sediment and obstruct the movement of fish and other organisms. Although some of these barriers have their uses, such as for hydropower, drinking water and irrigation, many are now obsolete. Tim Jacklin outlines the benefits to river habitats of removing these barriers and illustrates possible approaches by describing several different weir removal projects in the UK.
Before and after the removal of a weir in the Dovedale valley. Tim Jacklin
With the move to more intensive farming during the last century, many farmland ponds, which were once dotted across much of the British countryside, were filled in. But not all is lost. These former ponds, known as ‘ghost ponds’, can be resurrected; the seeds of wetland plants and stonewort oospores are still viable and, once a pond is restored, wetland plant communities are quick to recolonise. Carl Sayer et al. describe how to locate ghost ponds, the methods used for excavation, and the management of ponds post restoration.
A resurrected ghost pond. Carl Sayer
Soils play a key role in a number of ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration, water management and nutrient cycling, and although they were once largely ignored, there is an emerging understanding of the importance of improving the health of soil, particularly in an agricultural context. With a focus on soils on farms, Becky Willson, from the Farm Carbon Toolkit, discusses what soil health is and why it is important, and the key characteristics of good-quality soil.
In this and every issue you can expect to see Briefing, keeping you up to date with the latest training courses, events and publications, and On the ground which provides helpful tips or updates on products relevant to land management. Other features, such as Review, which can include letters from readers or updates from our authors, also regularly appear in CLM.
CLM is published four times a year, in March, June, September and December, and is available by subscription only, delivered straight to your door. Subscriptions start from £22 per year. If you would like to read any of these articles, back issues are also available to purchase individually (subject to availability).
If you are involved in a conservation project and think your experiences could be useful to other practitioners, we would love to hear from you. Feel free to contact us if you are interested in writing for CLM – we will be happy to discuss your ideas with you.
Ospreys are being reintroduced to Ireland, more than 200 years after they were declared extinct. The species has not bred in Ireland since the 1700s but, after years of lobbying, the National Parks and Wildlife Service has agreed to reintroduce Osprey this year. A report from last year showed that 25% of Irish birds are in severe decline, with 37% more showing moderate decline. There are now calls to reintroduce more birds that are now extinct in Ireland.
People are being warned to leave capercailies alone, as this endangered bird stops breeding when disturbed. This species, whose Scottish population consists of only 542 individuals, is on the brink of extinction. It is a criminal offence to disturb capercallie while they are lekking (where males gather to display and fight for the attention of females), nesting or raising young. A birdwatcher was even arrested and charged last year for disturbing them.
Climate change
The hot, dry summer of 2022 has had a major impact on some UK butterfly species. The new study was conducted by Butterfly Conservation, the UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, British Trust for Ornithology and Joint Nature Conservation Committee. It showed that species such as the green-veined white, small white, small tortoiseshell, peacock and brimstone experienced greatly reduced numbers following the widespread drought. This is thought to be due to insufficient food for the caterpillars as food plants withered and died in the drought conditions.
The net zero strategy shows that the UK will miss its 2030 emissions cuts targets. According to the government, its policies will only achieve 92% of cuts required, but experts think that is a ‘very generous reading’. The UK has a legally binding requirement to reach net zero emissions by 2050, and it commited under the Paris agreement to cut emissions by 68% by 2030 (compared with 1990 levels). The new strategy is a mix of wins and losses: it requires car manufacturers to ensure 22% of their car sales and 10% of van sales must be of electric vehicles by 2024, but does not lift the ban on onshore windfarms and contains little reference to agriculture.
Policy
A new multi-million pound grant scheme has been launched by Natural England to help rare and threatened species, such as water voles, curlews and natterjack toads. The Species Recovery Programme Capital Grant Scheme will provide projects with £18 million over two years, delivering targeted conservation action through the creation and improvement of specific wildlife habitats, conservation translocation, research and creating solutions to address species decline.
Scientists have found the deepest fish ever recorded at 8,300 metres in the Izu-Ogasawara trench near Japan. A team made up of researchers from Western Australia and Tokyo captured footage of the animal, an unknown snailfish species belonging to the genus Pseudoliparis. Two other snailfish, Pseudoliparis belyaevi, were also filmed at a depth of 8,022m. At this depth, the pressure is 800 times greater than at the surface; snailfish are adapted to live at these high pressures by not having swim bladders and they have a gelatinous layer instead of scales.
A newly described leafless orchid in Sri Lanka has been named. The species was found in a lowland wet zone forest and has been named Gastrodia pushparaga, after a precious yellow sapphire commonly extracted from the same district. This is the third Gestrodia species found in Sri Lanka, the other two being discovered in 1906 and 2020.
In her debut book, Meetings with Moths, ecologist Katty Baird delves into the Scottish landscape in search of some incredible moths that have formed remarkable relationships, responses and adaptations in order to prevail. Meetings with Moths is a journey through all seasons, across a range of habitats and taking in each stage of the moth life cycle; investigating the ways in which moths utilise sight, sound, and smell in their lives, as well as their unique camouflage abilities and navigational skills. Along the way Katty meets with fellow ecologists, researchers and moth enthusiasts and draws on past research, records and recorders to explore the changing fates of these often overlooked (by their very nature) insects, and the intricacies of their fascinating lives.
Following a Zoology degree and PhD, Katty Baird continued in academia as a postdoctoral research fellow, studying insect-plant interactions. She now works as an ecologist, recording and monitoring invertebrates throughout Scotland. Since 2016 she has run the Hibernating Herald project and in 2019/20 she wrote a popular blog, recording moths on the Whittingehame Estate in East Lothian.
We were delighted to be able to ask Katty a few questions prior to the release of Meetings with Moths.
There are some beautiful ponderings throughout the book alluding to your early encounters and memories with moths. Could you tell us a little more about what got you hooked on moths, and how you’ve come to work so closely with them, both in the wild and in your work with museum collections?
I’m a big fan of all insects (and other invertebrates) and generally, as long as I’m learning new things, I’m happy. However, with moths, I love that you don’t need a microscope to enjoy their beautiful variety and a light trap means many species can be enjoyed relatively easily. It’s hard not to be impressed by the stature of a Poplar Hawk-moth or the delicacy of a White Plume Moth. They are also great insects to share with others; excellent ambassadors for our often-overlooked smaller fauna.
Moths are a relatively well-studied insect group in the UK which provides useful context for me to understand my own recording efforts. But at the same time, there is so much we don’t know, particularly about moth life cycles and ecology, leaving plenty of opportunity for making new discoveries!
As for museum collections, through my endeavours here, I’ve discovered a treasure trove of information waiting to be unlocked. Sadly, there just isn’t the resources to extract this data and make it available to all. I’m fortunate that I’ve been able to offer some time to help, though it wasn’t entirely altruistic – I have also learned much about moths and moth recording in the process; I only wish I had more time to give.
The book contains many fascinating introductions to prominent lepidopterists, ecologists and enthusiasts, some of whom are at the forefront of current moth research, and others from the early days of modern appreciation and understanding. Did you set out with clear influences to research and include in the book, and have some surprised you along the way?
I’m naturally quite shy and like nothing more than being outdoors on my own, but I think this book has highlighted how important people in the moth-ing community have been to me. An initial aim of the book was to share some of the wonders of our native moths through my own experiences of seeking them out, but as I got stuck into the writing, I realised that my best stories were those that included the people I’ve met along the way. Lots of wonderful characters, a few quirks here and there, each pursuing moths in their own way but ultimately for the same reason: because they love seeing these insects. Wanting to know more about the animals and plants around me has led me to an interest in moths, but my fellow Lepidopterists have definitely enhanced it.
From your experiences working among archives of invertebrate specimens, do you think the character of a collector comes through in their collections?
Yes, I think so, particularly in archives with accompanying notes and diaries. Just as contemporary recorders have slightly different motivations; for example seeing as many species as possible or understanding the moths of a particular area well, so did collectors from the past. The details that are written on the labels, the handwriting, the comments in notebooks all hint at the personality of the characters involved. I’m not sure our modern legacy of spreadsheets and digital photo archives provide the same back story. Of course in many cases – a bit like social media feeds – only the significant finds and achievements get documented for prosperity. Failures are brushed aside and conveniently forgotten.
As the title suggests, you meet with many incredible moths within the journey of this book, and you deftly extol their virtues while inspiring the reader to do the same. What initial advice would you offer to those wanting to start meeting moths?
Get out there and start looking! Try an early morning check of walls of buildings that have been lit overnight (toilet blocks are surprisingly good) or wandering around at dusk looking at flowers with a torch. To start with, just enjoy finding them but as your curiosity is piqued you will probably want to know their names. There are various guidebooks and online identification resources – try the ‘What’s Flying Tonight?’ app or join a social media moth group (there are many!). Best of all though is to learn from and be inspired by others. Many local Butterfly Conservation groups run moth events where you can see moths, and some have light traps to borrow if you want to try before you buy. Once you start using a light trap, you will wonder what took you so long.
It’s clear that moths face a myriad of existential challenges in our changing climate and with many unique habitats and relationships under increasing threat, the stories in your book of their adaptations and adjustments in life are remarkable and admirable. What do you see as the conservation priorities that would actively support greater moth abundance and diversity in the UK?
We need to improve, connect and protect habitats beyond the limited spaces within nature reserves so moths can move across landscapes more easily. This means things like limiting chemical use, reducing grazing pressures, flailing hedges and verges less frequently, and allowing areas for nature to do its own thing. It can be helpful to focus on saving a particular species of moth, or a particular habitat, but it is the wider benefits of that focus that will make the most difference.
It’s easy to feel a bit helpless, but planting gardens, balconies, window boxes with plants that insects can use, will make a difference to your local moth populations and has the bonus of attracting them to you.
I really enjoyed reading about how you return to certain species each year to check in with them in both new and familiar places. Could you tell us a bit about a species that calls you back, and why they speak to you?
It has to be the Tissue, Triphosa dubitata. In Scotland, this is sparsely distributed and quite hard to catch up with, but through seeking overwintering adults out in various caves and mines we are learning a bit more about its life here. They arrive in these overwintering sites in late summer, and for the last six years, I’ve got inexplicably excited when seeing the first ones of the year. Even though they are almost expected in some places, I still get a buzz from seeing them. It is a beautiful moth, with lovely patterns of silver, grey and pink. Each one has slightly different patterning which makes them individually recognisable and easy to follow over the winter (though I’ve stopped short of giving them names). A big part of the attraction of finding Tissue is exploring the caves and mines where they turn up. On a bleak October day, with the wind and rain lashing, the peace and restoration of being enveloped in the darkness of a cave in the company of beautiful moths can’t be replicated.
Tissue – Triphosa dubitata
Is there a moth you can tell us about that you’ve not met that you’re eager to see?
There are many species I’ve still to meet. If I put my mind to it, I expect I could see a lot of them by visiting known sites at the right time of year but I’m not in that much of a hurry. In my home county of East Lothian, one of my most-wanted is Portland Moth. It’s a rather optimistic wish; this is a rare moth anywhere in the UK and hasn’t been seen for about a hundred years in East Lothian. They live in dune areas, but we don’t really know exactly how they like their dunes to be. We’re not even sure what range of plants the caterpillars will eat. It is one of the species that Butterfly Conservation Scotland is hoping to find out more about, so I’m hoping to join them on some of their planned searches for caterpillars at known sites further north. Nocturnal crawling around sand dunes with a bunch of moth enthusiasts can only be fun.
Lastly, I’d like to ask what you have in mind next, if there are further writing projects you’d like to tell us about or a new line of research on the horizon?
I would love to write more about Alice Balfour and other forgotten Scottish entomologists from the past. There are some interesting stories to be told. I would also like to do more moth science. Butterfly Conservation have a list of ‘priority species’, rare moths that they want to know more about. If I could, I would pick one of these, go and base myself somewhere in the middle of Scotland and spend my days and nights finding out all there is to know about them. Anyone is welcome to come and help!
The High Seas Treaty is a new agreement signed by the UN which aims to put 30% of international waters into marine protected areas (MPAs) by 2030. International waters are two-thirds of the world’s ocean, established under the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, where all countries have a right to fish, ship and conduct research. Currently, only 1.2% of these areas are protected, leaving the rest open to exploitation from a wide variety of threats.
What are the current threats to the world’s oceans?
There are a number of key threats to the health of our oceans. A recent assessment by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) found that nearly 10% of marine species are at risk of extinction. Overfishing and pollution are the two biggest threats, according to the Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research. The number of overfished stocks has tripled globally in the last 50 years and, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, one-third of the world’s assessed fisheries are being pushed beyond biological limits. Illegal fishing, under-researched, unbacked or unregulated fishing quotas, and bycatch all combine to create a major threat to global marine ecosystems.
Around 4 million fishing vessels are currently in operation around the globe. Poor government management and control of fisheries and trade, along with subsidies provided by many governments to offset business costs and a criminal fishing network worth around $36.4 billion annually, are all serving to drive overfishing. This leads to degraded ecosystems, changes in biotic factors such as abundance, average fish size, reproduction strategies and speed of maturation, leading to imbalances between predator and prey dynamics that can erode food webs.
Commercial fishing boat. Image by Gary Leavens via Flickr
While plastic pollution is often the most discussed type of marine pollution, there are actually a broad number of sources, including chemicals and excess nutrients from agricultural runoff, industrial wastewater and sewage, oil spills, ocean acidification and other non-biodegradable waste. They can be broadly grouped into two categories: chemicals and trash. Chemical pollution creates negative effects on the marine environment by changing the chemical state of the ocean, artificially increasing nutrient levels which can lead to toxic algal blooms and impacting the physiology of marine life by reducing their capacity to reproduce, reducing offspring fitness, impacting growth or increasing their vulnerability to parasites and diseases. Marine trash can cause entanglement or be consumed, which can impact the health of marine life and even become fatal.
Other threats include those from shipping traffic, such as noise and collisions, climate change, deep-sea drilling or mining, weapons testing and sonar. Climate change impacts the oceans in a variety of complex ways, from sea level rises changing the abiotic factors of many habitats, temperature rises causing marine heat waves, more frequent and intense storms, and changes in oxygen and carbon dioxide levels leading to anoxic water and ocean acidification. Shipping noise, mining, weapons testing and sonar produce high levels of sound waves in the ocean, disrupting marine communication and impacting the behaviour of species such as whales, causing them to travel miles away and even beaching themselves to avoid the disturbance. All these stressors impact marine life, leading to mass mortality events and threatening ecosystems.
Whale strandings can occur due to a variety of causes, one being excessive noise pollution. Image of a mass pilot whale stranding by Oregon State University via Flickr.
What is the plan?
The talks, called the Intergovernmental Conference on Marine Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction, have now reached an agreement on the legal framework after almost 20 years. One of the main elements of this treaty is the aim to create international MPAs, restricting industrial fishing, deep-sea mining and other potentially destructive activities. Another part of the treaty looks to reassess environmental impact assessments, creating consistent ground rules that all nations will need to follow when calculating the potential damage of human activities in these areas. It would also open up the sharing of genetic resources from international waters, which has both scientific and commercial benefits.
Will this be effective?
More than 100 countries are part of this agreement. While the treaty has been agreed upon, it is not yet been ‘legally agreed’, meaning that the treaty must first be formally adopted and then be passed legally into all the countries that have signed up. Effective implementation is crucial, as if all countries do not abide by the new treaty, it will not have the full impacts that are desired. Talks have previously been held up due to a number of disagreements over fishing rights and funding.
For MPAs to be effective, they need to be properly regulated and enforced. This means that fishing quotas must be backed by thorough research, catch numbers need to be reported accurately and illegal fishing must be controlled. Many existing MPAs fail to protect marine biodiversity and keep fishing to sustainable levels, according to a report by the European court of auditors. A study even found that 59% of the MPAs in Europe were being trawled by commercial vessels more often than in areas without protection. Therefore, without proper and rigorous regulation, these areas will simply provide a false sense of security without any actual progress in conserving and restoring our marine biodiversity.
Over 80% of marine polution comes from land-based activities. Image by Ravi Khemka via Flickr.
Additionally, while creating MPAs that would regulate fishing, shipping routes and research such as deep-sea mining, it does not protect from the other threats to marine health. Over 80% of marine pollution comes from land-based activities, therefore these new MPAs will continue to be threatened by pollution. They will also still be threatened by the impacts of climate change, although intact ecosystems are much more resilient to these stressors than degraded ones. Therefore, if these new MPAs can repair biodiversity in these areas, some of the effects of these threats could be at least partially mitigated.
To aid the approval of the treaty and its early implementation, the EU pledged €40m (£35m). The continued success of this, however, requires continued funding. This is why countries will still be allowed to profit from marine genetic resources, as a proportion of this will need to be placed into a global fund. High-income countries may be asked to contribute more, and the fund will need to be regulated to make sure the correct contributions are being made and that funds are being used effectively and fairly.
Summary
This new UN treaty will place 30% of international waters into Marine Protected Areas by 2030, restricting fishing, mining and other destructive marine activities.
The marine ecosystem is under threat from a variety of sources, including pollution, overfishing and climate change.
The MPAs will need to be properly regulated. This treaty will not protect the areas from all threats but, if the ecosystems become more intact and stable, this will help to mitigate some of the impacts.
Funding will need to be continuous and used fairly and effectively for this treaty to be successfully implemented.
21st March marks the 12th annual International Day of Forests. On this day, the UN encourages countries around the world to celebrate and raise awareness of the importance of forests, through events, activities and campaigns large and small.
The theme of this year’s International Day of Forests is ‘Forests and Health‘. This topic aims to bring attention to the myriad of ways in which forests are linked with human health – through provision of foods and medicines, by improving our physical and mental health, and by helping to keep global warming in check.
Key messages of International Day of Forests 2023
Forests are a vital source of food and nutrition Nearly one billion people globally depend on harvesting wild food such as herbs, fruits, nuts, meat and insects for nutritious diets. In some remote tropical areas, the consumption of wild meat is estimated to cover between 60 – 80 percent of daily protein needs.
Forests are natural pharmacies
Around 50 000 plant species – many of which grow in forests – have medicinal value. Local communities use forest-derived medicines for a wide array of ailments and many common pharmaceutical medicines are derived from forest plants, including cancer-treating drugs from the Madagascar periwinkle and malaria medication quinine from cinchona trees.
Healthy forests protect us from diseases
Forests have traditionally served as a natural barrier to disease transmission between animals and humans, but as deforestation continues, the risk of diseases spilling over from animals to people is rising. More than 30 percent of new diseases reported since 1960 are attributed to land-use change, including deforestation.
Forests boost our mental and physical health
Spending time in forests increases positive emotions and decreases stress, blood pressure, depression, fatigue, anxiety and tension. Trees in cities also absorb pollutant gases from traffic and industry and filter fine particulates such as dust, dirt and smoke, which help shield urban populations from respiratory diseases.
Forests play a central role in combating the biggest health threat facing humanity: climate change
Healthy forests help keep global warming in check: forests contain 662 billion tonnes of carbon, which is more than half the global carbon stock in soils and vegetation. Forests and trees also help buffer exposure to heat and extreme weather events caused by climate change, which pose a major global health challenge. For example, trees properly placed around buildings cool the air and can cut air conditioning needs by up to 30 percent, also saving energy.
Forests are under threat and need our help
Ten million hectares – roughly the equivalent of 14 million football pitches – of forest were lost per year to deforestation between 2015 and 2020. Forest insects damage around 35 million hectares of forest annually. Fire affected approximately 98 million hectares of forest globally in 2015. Through forest-friendly policies and increased investment in forests and trees we can protect our planet and our health.
How to get involved
• Organise or join an existing event to celebrate and promote the role of forests in maintaining human health. Great ideas include forest walks, tree planting gatherings, forest-related art exhibitions and public talks or debates.
• Let the UN know about what you’ve been up to by emailing IDF@fao.org. If you send them your photos, they can also add them to this year’s gallery.
• Download the logo, banner or poster and share these to help get the word out about the 2023 International Day of Forests.
• Share your experiences on social media using the hashtag #IntlForestDay
Associated UN publications
Forests for human health and well-being: Strengthening the forest-health-nutrition nexus
This publication examines the many linkages of forests and human health and offers recommendations for creating an enabling environment in which people can benefit from them. Designed for practitioners and policy-makers in a range of fields.
Further reading on forests
Finding the Mother Tree: Uncovering the Wisdom and Intelligence of the Forest
No one has done more to transform our understanding of trees than the world-renowned scientist Suzanne Simard. Now she shares the secrets of a lifetime spent uncovering startling truths about trees: their cooperation, healing capacity, memory, wisdom and sentience.
The World Atlas of Trees and Forests
The earth’s forests are havens of nature supporting a diversity of life. Shaped by climate and geography, these vast and dynamic wooded spaces offer unique ecosystems that shelter interdependent webs of organisms. This book offers a beautiful introduction to what forests are.
Ancient Woods, Trees & Forests: Ecology, History and Management
From ancient times until today, trees and woods have inspired artists, writers and scientists. This inspiring book helps us to understand the web of connections relating to ancient trees and woodlands, and to offer techniques to ensure effective conservation and sustainability of this precious resource.
A Forest Journey: The Role of Trees in the Fate of Civilization
Now in its third edition, this classic book provides comprehensive coverage of the major role forests have played in human life – told with grace, fluency, imagination, and humour. It has been named one of Harvard’s “One Hundred Great Books”.
An invasive snail is helping an endangered bird in Florida. The snail kite is bouncing back from the threat of extinction, due to the abundance of a new food source. Their original food source, a local apple snail, suffered severe declines due to droughts in the early 2000s. This new non-native island apple snail is five times bigger than the original species; continued monitoring of the snail kite has shown that their bills are getting bigger to accommodate this larger food source.
The Yangtze finless porpoise population has increased for the first time. The latest census conducted by the Chinese Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs shows that the population has increased by over 23 percent in the past five years, from 1,012 to 1,249. This is seen as evidence that the conservation effort for the world’s only freshwater porpoise is effective.
Humans are altering the diet of the Tasmanian devil. Human-modified landscapes may be narrowing the diet of this species and accelerating their decline, according to a new study. Devils living in human-impacted areas, such as cleared land, fed on mainly medium-sized mammals. However, in undisturbed habitats, their diet was broader, including smaller animals such as birds.
There is a drought risk to multiple English regions after a dry February. England had its driest February for 30 years, with some rivers at their lowest on record. Scientists are warning that South West England and East Anglia are at risk of drought unless ‘unseasonably sustained rainfall’ occurs in the coming months.
Global fresh water demand will outstrip supply by 40% by 2030, according to experts. The new report calls for governments to stop subsidising the extraction and overuse of water, and for industries from mining to manufacturing to overhaul any wasteful practices. The report has set out seven key recommendations, including scaling up investment in water management and pricing water properly.
Scientists have delivered the ‘final warning’ on the climate crisis. The final part of the sixth assessment report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was set out on Monday. This comprehensive review of the knowledge of the climate crisis took eight years to compile and has one clear message: act now, or it will be too late. The report, called the synthesis report, will most likely be the last assessment while the world has a chance of limiting global temperature rises to 1.5°C.
Policy
Ecological emergency has been declared by councillors in South Tyneside, UK. This is part of efforts to boost the biodiversity in the borough, while also safeguarding the natural environment. This declaration has set out 11 pledges which will increase ‘eco-literacy’, develop ‘member champions’ for biodiversity and ensure that council strategic decisions and policies will consider and maximise nature recovery.
Biodiversity Net Gain (BNG) is a new scheme from the government which requires that all new developments improve the natural environment rather than degrade it. From November 2023 onwards, new developments must make sure that the habitat for wildlife is in a better position than it was before the development.
The developer must try to avoid any loss of habitat in the land that is being developed. If this is not possible, additional habitat must be created, either on-site or off-site; at an alternative area that the developer owns, by purchasing units from a land manager or by buying statutory credits from the government. A combination of all three options can be used to make up BNG, but approval from local planning authorities must be gained.
Who will be affected by this new scheme?
The main people who will be impacted by this new scheme are:
Land managers
Developers/construction
Local Planning Authorities
Ecologists
If you own or manage land in England, you can get paid by selling biodiversity units to developers. Currently, the new scheme will only cover England, although existing regulation in Wales requires developments to provide a net benefit for biodiversity. Within Scotland, the 2019 Planning Act requires developments to provide positive impacts for biodiversity.
How much gain is needed?
Under the Environment Act 2021, all new developments need to deliver at least a 10% net gain, with the habitats needing to be secure for at least 30 years. These areas must be either delivered on-site, off-site or via the new statutory biodiversity credits scheme. A national register will hold records and information of all net gain delivery sites.
How is this measured?
An area will be assessed based on its value to nature so that developers or land managers can understand the biodiversity value of a site. The biodiversity metric can be used to assess the value of the land, demonstrate biodiversity gains or losses, measure direct impacts on biodiversity and compare proposals for creating or enhancing habitats on- or off-site. Creating a consistent approach to biodiversity assessment will help planning authorities and communities to better understand the impacts that development can have on the natural environment and to provide the necessary monitoring to ensure that environmental improvements and mitigations for habitat loss are effective.
The metric will calculate the value of a site as ‘biodiversity units’, which are based on the size of the habitat, its quality or condition and location, including whether the sites are in locations identified as local nature priorities. For example, each habitat condition is assessed based on certain criteria, including essential criteria that must be met to achieve a good condition score. The condition is then scored as either poor, moderate or good. Other factors that affect the biodiversity value include how connected the habitat is with other areas and the rarity or diversity of the habitat and the species found in it.
There have been multiple versions of the biodiversity metric, starting in 2012 when the first metric was piloted. With each new version, changes have been made based on suggestions put forward by experts. Currently, biodiversity metric 3.1 is being used, but the government is advising that a future biodiversity metric 4.0 will be Defra’s standard from November 2023. The calculation tools and user guides can be found on Natural England’s Access to Evidence website.
Once the values are obtained, the developers must deliver a biodiversity gain plan, setting out how the development will deliver this net gain and allowing planning authorities to assess whether the proposals meet objectives. The plan should cover:
how any adverse impacts on habitats will be minimised,
the biodiversity value of the onsite habitat pre- and post-development,
the biodiversity value of any offsite habitat,
if any statutory biodiversity credits will need to be purchased,
any further requirements set out in other legislations.
The UK has lost 90% of its wetland habitats. Image by Stephen Gidley via Flickr.
How will this impact the environment in England?
Development, land-use change and urban expansions are among the leading causes of biodiversity loss. The UK is one of the most depleted countries, having lost nearly half of our biodiversity since the 1970s. We are ranked in the worst 10% globally for biodiversity intactness. Overall, 41% of species in the UK have declined, with 26% of mammals at risk of extinction. We’ve lost 97% of our meadows, 90% of our wetlands and 80% of lowland heathlands. A scheme where development will no longer lead to biodiversity loss, but instead to net gain, is a step in the right direction to preventing further loss and helping to begin repairing our degraded environment.
Replacing any established habitats with new ones, however, will have a temporary negative impact on the environment, as newly created habitats can take years to be properly established. This would mean a short-term loss in biodiversity which may have serious consequences for vulnerable species. This is essentially the same issue with COP26’s Declaration on Forest and Land Use, which does not actually forbid the cutting down of forests, but rather aims to end net deforestation, with forest loss being replaced “sustainably”. However, replacing primary or old-growth forests with new growth has serious negative environmental consequences, as the highly complex ecosystems supported by old-growth forests have an irreplaceable value.
There is hope, however, as the Environment Act includes provisions which will exempt irreplaceable habitats from the BNG requirement, as the National Planning Policy Framework states that “development resulting in the loss or deterioration of irreplaceable habitats…should be refused, unless there are wholly exceptional reasons and a suitable compensation strategy exists”. This, therefore, will prevent the new scheme from weakening existing protection for these irreplaceable habitats such as ancient woodlands.
Ancient woodlands, areas of woodland that have persisted since 1600 (1750 in Scotland), only make up 2.5% of the UK. Image by ines s. via Flickr.
Most important, however, is the need for accurate monitoring to ensure that the pre- and post-development biodiversity values are accurate. A recent report has shown that HS2 Ltd has been undervaluing existing nature and overvaluing its compensation measures, with biodiversity loss from Phase 1 of HS2 being at least 7.9 times higher than calculated, and loss caused by Phase 2a 3.6 times higher. The report found that habitats such as watercourses, ponds and trees had been completely missed out from the data and habitats such as well-established tree-lined and species-rich hedgerows have been valued lower than the new hedgerows HS2 Ltd is planning to plant. Inaccurate reporting will undermine the main aim of the BNG scheme, reducing its effectiveness and continuing the degradation of biodiversity in England.
What are the barriers?
There are several issues which may impact the successful implementation of this new method. The first is a lack of resources within local authorities. All new biodiversity gain plans must be approved by local authorities to make sure they are accurate and meet the correct objectives, therefore there must be someone with ecological expertise within the local planning authorities who can review applications and oversee the delivery of these plans. Additionally, local planning authorities may not be able to identify and set up off-site compensation measures needed if a net gain cannot be produced on-site.
Additionally, a lack of clear information, awareness or training for developers, land owners/managers, planning authorities and farmers is another barrier to the success of this method. If those involved are not given access to the correct training, it is unlikely that BNG will be implemented successfully, delaying developments and putting our environment at continued risk. A further issue includes cost implications, as delivering BNG will involve an extra cost that will need to either be absorbed by developers or passed onto customers. However, the scheme will open a new market for landowners, helping to provide environmentally positive incomes.
There has also been criticism about how the previous iterations of the biodiversity metric classified habitats. Scrubby landscapes, such as those dominated by bramble and ragwort, were classed as a sign of degradation, despite them being key features of many rewilding projects. Certain plants, such as docks, were considered ‘undesirable’ despite being a key food plant for many insect species. Due to these classifications, these areas might not be properly compensated for, meaning that the net gains planning would be inaccurate.
Ragwort, fed on by a cinnabar moth caterpillar. Image by caroline legg via Flickr.
Summary
From November 2023, all new developments must deliver a 10% biodiversity net gain, either through on- or off-site plans or by purchasing statutory credits.
The biodiversity value of the habitats on the development site must be determined using the Biodiversity Metric 4.0, which should be released in Spring 2023.
This scheme will help to reduce biodiversity loss and begin to repair the environment in England, but only if it is properly implemented and enforced.
A lack of funding, awareness and training could be barriers to the successful implementation of this scheme. Other issues such as additional costs and poor habitat classifications are also risks to success.
Australia plans to make an area the size of Germany into a marine park in the Southern Ocean. The area around the Macquarie Island will strengthen the protections currently in place, helping to manage the important ecosystem for millions of seabirds, seals and penguins. The proposal will be open for public consultation, with the plan allowing for the continuation of the small Patagonian toothfish fishery. The expansion of the marine park will increase the amount of protected area in Australia’s oceans to 48.2%.
A historic ocean treaty has been agreed upon after a decade of talks. The High Seas Treaty will protect 30% of international waters by 2030. Currently, only 1.2% of these waters are protected, yet all countries have a right to fish, ship and do research in international waters. The new treaty will establish marine protected areas in international waters limiting how much fishing can take place, as well as restrictions on shipping lane routes and activities such as deep-sea mining.
Climate change
Rising sea temperatures have caused sea urchin populations to plummet in West Australia. A number of molluscs and sea urchins on Rottnest Island have seen declines in numbers of up to 90% between 2007 and 2021. Researchers from Curtin University believe rising sea temperatures are to blame. Rader Reef and Cape Vlamingh are designated as sanctuary zones, with the highest level of protection from human activity, but this still isn’t enough to protect against the catastrophic decline in biodiversity.
A newly described snake is being threatened by mining in Ecuador and Panama. The DiCaprio’s snake is one of five new species of snail-eating snakes from the upper Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador and the Choco-Darien forests of Panama. Both areas have seen an increase in illegal gold mining along rivers and streams during the COVID-19 pandemic which, along with deforestation, is threatening a number of species in these habitats.
Researchers have found 26 Australian species that have recovered from the brink of extinction. They reviewed all the animals that have been listed as threatened under Australia’s Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act between 2000 and 2022 and discovered that 15 mammals, eight birds, four frogs and one fish no longer met the criteria to be listed as threatened under the Act. This number includes three that had been legitimately delisted during this time. The researchers attributed this recovery to targeted management. However, far more species have become threatened than recovered over the past 20 years.
Canada’s environment minister is planning to use a rare emergency order to protect the last of an endangered owl species. The species is in an area in British Columbia where old-growth forest has been slated for further clearcutting. The northen spotted owl faces serious threats to its population, as only one wild-born northern spotted owl remains, with two others, born as part of a breeding programme, recently released into the wild. Before industrial logging, there were nearly 1,000 northern spotted owls in British Columbia.
Northern spotted owl by Kyle Sullivan via Bureau of Land Management Oregon and Washington via Flickr
New discoveries
A species of ‘ethereal fairy lantern’ has been rediscovered in Japan after being thought extinct for 30 years. The flowering plant in the genus Thismia lives entirely underground except for its lantern-like flowers, rising above the soil during the wet season. Resembling mushrooms, one such species was originally discovered from a single specimen in 1992, but after scientists could not locate another and its habitat was destroyed, it was presumed extinct. A new individual has now been located 30 kilometres away from the original.
I’m a big fan of all insects (and other invertebrates) and generally, as long as I’m learning new things, I’m happy. However, with moths, I love that you don’t need a microscope to enjoy their beautiful variety and a light trap means many species can be enjoyed relatively easily. It’s hard not to be impressed by the stature of a Poplar Hawk-moth or the delicacy of a White Plume Moth. They are also great insects to share with others; excellent ambassadors for our often-overlooked smaller fauna.
Yes, I think so, particularly in archives with accompanying notes and diaries. Just as contemporary recorders have slightly different motivations; for example seeing as many species as possible or understanding the moths of a particular area well, so did collectors from the past. The details that are written on the labels, the handwriting, the comments in notebooks all hint at the personality of the characters involved. I’m not sure our modern legacy of spreadsheets and digital photo archives provide the same back story. Of course in many cases – a bit like social media feeds – only the significant finds and achievements get documented for prosperity. Failures are brushed aside and conveniently forgotten.
21st March marks the 12th annual International Day of Forests. On this day, the UN encourages countries around the world to celebrate and raise awareness of the importance of forests, through events, activities and campaigns large and small.
