A whale shark was observed feeding at the seabed for the first time. This species usually filter-feeds on plankton at the sea surface; this unusual behaviour was filmed by an ecotourism guide. A new study, published in May 2023, proposes that whale sharks actively feed on benthic prey, either in deep water environments or where the abundance of this prey exceeds that of planktonic food sources.
Whale shark filter feeding at the surface. Image by Daniel Gillaspia via Flickr
Irish geneticists have discovered how some species may have been able to survive a mass extinction. Scientists at Trinity College Dublin unearthed a ‘dramatic evolutionary event’ in sturgeon and paddlefish populations. The species’ entire genetic makeup was ‘copied and pasted’ so that it had twice the genetic material it had before, providing more opportunities for mutations and evolution to occur. By strengthening their genetic mix, they might have been able to facilitate their re-establishment after a major mass extinction 200 million years ago.
Pollution
The River Wye has had its health status downgraded after a wildlife review by Natural England. The status changed from “unfavourable-improving” to “unfavourable-declining”, meaning that the river’s condition is worsening. The assessment showed that the river has experienced declines in certain key species, including Atlantic salmon and white-clawed crayfish. Previous studies linked this decline in condition to intensive chicken farming on the catchment.
The population of white-bellied heron in Bhutan continues to grow. Across 14 habitats, 27 individuals were recorded this year, four more than last year. This critically endangered species has fewer than 60 individuals worldwide and is found only in the Himalayan region in Bhutan, north-east India and Myanmar. As this is a top predator, its presence indicates a healthy ecosystem. Threats to this species and its habitat include fishing, local activities, natural resource extraction, development, ecotourism and timber and firewood.
The oak processionary moth, an invasive species, is thought to be spreading across south-east England. The government has introduced new legislation which aims to control the movement of oak trees in south-east England due to this rise in moth numbers. The toxic moths feed on the leaves of oak trees, affecting the health of oak trees by weakening them, making them more vulnerable to pests, diseases and drought.
Farmers are warning that England’s hedgerows are under threat from funding cuts. The transition to post-Brexit farming payments may mean that schemes to protect hedgerows could be lost. These habitats are vital for a number of species, including mammals, birds and pollinating insects, as they provide both food and shelter. The EU paid farmers under its subsidy scheme to keep hedgerows on their land, but they had to meet certain standards such as not ploughing to the base of hedgerows; not using fertilisers or pesticides within two metres of them; and not cutting hedgerows between 1st March and 31st August without good cause due to nesting birds. The government is ending these requirements by the end of the year.
15-million-year-old giant wombat skeletons have been uncovered in Australia. A new paper analysed the various features of these fossil bones to reveal the overall size and shape of the animal, its lifestyle and surrounding environment, as well as what kind of movements the animal was capable of. The research showed that this species, known as Nimbadon, spent some of its time suspended from tree branches like a sloth, grew in periodic spurts and had opposable thumbs. They are currently studying the enamel microstructure of Nimbadon’s teeth to determine its diet.
A program to plant 20 million trees in Australia prioritised cost-saving over gains for the environment, according to new research. Beginning in 2014, the program was aiming to improve native vegetation, support a richness of plant and animal species and reduce greenhouse gases. However, funding decisions were largely driven by ‘value for money’ considerations, with projects where the cost per tree was less than A$5 far more likely to be funded than projects where a tree cost more than A$10, undermining the benefits for both threatened species and the climate.
Extinction risk
A lack of large prey in Nepal may be the reason behind the rise in human-tiger conflicts. The wild tiger population has nearly tripled in the past 12 years but this has led to an increase in conflicts, with tigers in Bardiya National Park frequently preying on livestock in nearby settlements. Tigers in Parsa National Park, however, have access to large prey such as wild water buffalo and guar wild cattle, and researchers found no traces of livestock in their diet.
Trapping is holding back the speed of bird recovery in the Harapan Forest, Sumatra, Indonesia. A new study has found that the decade of protection and natural regeneration has helped bird populations increase in this forest, but wild trapping is preventing the full results of reforestation efforts. 45.1% of 122 bird species showed a notable population increase from 2009 to 2018, but 16.2% faced intensified trapping pressure.
Climate change
For the first time, wind is now the main source of UK electricity. In the first three months of 2023, wind turbines generated more electricity than gas, with a third of the country’s electricity coming from wind farms. There was also a record period for solar energy generation. While there is still a long way to go, this is a step in the right direction to meet the UK’s aim for all its electricity to have net zero emissions.
Frogs in Puerto Rico are croaking at a higher pitch due to global heating. The coqui frog appears to be decreasing in size due to the warmer temperatures, which is causing their croaks to become more high-pitched. Researchers are warning that if the trends continue, the temperature could become too high for certain amphibians to survive.
A new report claims that the UK could unlock £70bn a year in renewable energy. Generating more green electricity to meet the UK’s climate targets could create an additional 279,000 jobs, supporting a total of 654,000 jobs. If Britain’s clean electricity generation increased 50% above its current projections for 2050, it could be capable of exporting £17bn of green electricity to Europe annually. This could attract trillions in global private investment, doubling the £35bn a year economic benefit forecasted for its current path. To do this, government policymakers must remove barriers hampering the UK’s green energy ambitions, such as making sure the UK has enough batteries to store its renewable electricity and retrofitting commercial buildings to improve the UK’s energy efficiency.
Conservation
A Cornish farm is launching a project to triple the UK’s temperate rainforest. The Thousand Year Trust is being launched this year by a veteran who is now transforming his 120-hectare hill farm on Bodmin Moor into the largest rainforest restoration project in England and Wales. Working with local farmers, landowners and other charities to identify land suitable for this habitat, the charity has the ultimate aim of tripling Britain’s surviving rainforest to 1m acres over the next 30 years.
Seabird conservation is mostly working, according to a comprehensive new data set. Researchers compiled a data set of 851 seabird restoration events over the last 70 years, spanning 551 locations and targeting 138 seabird species. Forty-nine events used translocation, while 802 used social attraction, such as decoys, bird sound recordings and other devices aiming to lure birds to a new place. While the result of each project depended largely on the species and circumstances, most were successfully completed.
Policy
An unprecedented €2.2bn drought response plan has been approved in Spain. The package of measures includes €1.4bn in funds to tackle the drought and increase water availability, and €784m to help farmers maintain production and avoid food shortages. The €1.4bn will be spent on building new infrastructure, such as desalination plants, doubling the proportion of water that is reused in urban areas from 10% to 20% by 2027, and subsidising those whose irrigation water supplies would be reduced.
An abundance of urban honeybees adversely impacts wild bee populations. By comparing bee population data collected from sites around the island of Montreal in 2013 to data collected at the same sites in 2020, a new study argues that the rapid growth in urban honeybee-keeping in recent years may be negatively impacting nearby wild bee populations. The researchers believe that small bees with limited foraging ranges may be particularly at risk. As honeybees are not native to the region, they are in competition with the almost 180 other species for resources.
The habitat for Asian elephants has shrunk by almost two-thirds. Around 3.3 million sq km of habitat has been lost since 1700, according to a new study. China has lost 94% of its suitable elephant habitat, while India has lost 86% and Bangladesh 72%. Thailand, Vietnam and the Indonesian island of Sumatra have lost half of their suitable habitat. The study noted a trend of converting landscapes to more heavily human-dominated spaces but did not look into specific reasons for the habitat loss in each country.
A report has found that the UK is failing to honour its net zero farming pledges. The projected emissions drop for agriculture and land use are 58% below the target of the original net zero plan. This gap is comparable to the emissions of the entire UK building sector. Additionally, the total projected emissions benefits from tree planting, from now until 2037, are 85% lower than previously claimed, with the planting rates currently half of what are needed to be in line with net zero.
Spain is bracing for a record April temperature of 39°C. The government has warned people to take precautions as they face droughts and temperatures 7-11°C above average for this time of year. The country has been in drought since January last year. Last year, Spain experienced a series of heat waves, which were accompanied by forest fires that burned hundreds of thousands of hectares.
Wildlife crime
The illegal killings of birds of prey has led the Peak District national park to end an agreement between grouse moor managers and bird conservationists. The partnership, which was set up in 2011, sought to restore bird of prey populations across the park. Due to the continued illegal persecution targeting some of these species, the park is now looking for alternative ways to ensure birds of prey have a future in the area.
The Welsh Government has announced £11m for conservation projects that help Wales’ endangered wildlife. Nine new large and 17 medium projects will benefit from the last round of this Nature Networks funding package, helping to strengthen the resilience of Wales’ seas, forests and grasslands. One species to benefit is the Atlantic wild salmon, which experts say could disappear from Welsh rivers within the next two decades.
Brazil’s government has recognised six Indigenous lands. Out of 733 Indigenous territories, 496 are now recognised by the state, with the remaining 237 in different stages of the demarcation procedure. The current government is aiming to demarcate the highest number of Indigenous lands possible, not only because it is their right, but also to reach zero deforestation by 2030. Between 1990 and 2020, only 1% of native vegetation area was lost in lands demarcated or waiting demarcation. In comparision, private areas lost 20.6%.
A grey-headed lapwing has been spotted in Northumberland, UK. The species, which is normally found in India, China and Japan was spotted in England this week. It is thought to be the first sighting of the wader in the UK, with only five recorded sightings of the bird in Europe and western Asia in recent years.
Biodiversity Net Gain (BNG) is the new scheme by the UK Government to improve the health of our environment, set to become mandatory in England in November 2023. For more information about this scheme, please read our first blog on BNG. This new scheme represents an important opportunity for landowners as a diversification option. Those that are interested in getting involved in this scheme should assess their lands’ economic productivity to determine whether they have any low-productivity land that could be used for habitat creation.
Credits are areas of land (usually a minimum of 10 hectares) with a biodiversity net gain plan in place that have been registered through the regulator. Developers can purchase these credits to offset any biodiversity loss that cannot be mitigated for on-site. Creating credits for BNG can allow landowners to generate reliable and environmentally friendly income from otherwise unproductive or low-productivity land. To do this, the landowner needs to:
Have the area assessed using a preliminary ecological appraisal following Defra’s biodiversity metric. This will determine what the biodiversity value of the land is.
Have ecologists produce a net gain plan, based on 30 years of uplift.
Have a specialist lawyer draft a 30-year legal agreement including the net gain plan.
These units must be registered with a certificate through the regulator. There are fees involved in this registration, including the legal fees of the regulator when certifying the credits. Once these credits are certified, the landowner can sell them on the open market. A developer will pay a fee to purchase credits and this sum will usually include the lease of the land for 30 years, as well as management services, estimated by some to be around £800-900 pounds per hectare per year. This could be paid either as a one-off payment or in regular instalments over the 30-year period, depending on the agreement.
The onus is then on the landowner to deliver the net gain plan.
Positives
Not only will this be good PR for landowners, these units, which would otherwise be poor-yielding or non-yielding, will now be able to provide the landowner with a reliable income. Given the continued disruption from inflation, climate change, bird flu, Brexit, the Ukraine conflict and so on, a consistent income may help to relieve some of the pressures from these uncertainties. Diversifying the portfolio of the landowner/business, such as a farm, can improve the resilience of the business.
This scheme will help to create increased biodiversity, which can lead to benefits for productivity improvements on farms such as increased soil health, pollination and resistance to pests and disease.
Increasing areas set aside for biodiversity and habitats will improve the overall health of our environment, helping to fight the impacts of climate change. This, again, can help to improve farm yields and resilience.
Drawbacks
The use of the land will be locked in for 30 years, as it will be secured by conservation covenants, and must be managed in relation to the net gain plan. As climate change continues to impact England, this may involve more and more work for the landowner, above and beyond the initial lump sum fee. This may also mean the loss of a more financially beneficial opportunity in the future.
Additionally, due to the general movement towards protecting the environment, any land used for BNG may then become an important habitat, therefore the land may not be able to be used for anything else in the future, even when the covenant expires. While this is a positive for the environment, as it would provide long term protection for important habitats, landowners should consider how this may impact future business opportunities.
Changing the land from agricultural production could also have tax implications, as Agricultural Relief means some agricultural property is free from inheritance tax.
There is also little clear guidance on how BNG products will be accredited and monitored, therefore professional advice should be sought before entering into any agreements with developers.
Metric 4.0
The government recently published version 4.0 of the Biodiversity Net Gain Metric, which will most likely be the version used from November this year when the scheme becomes mandatory. The metric used for small sites has also been updated to align with this new version. The Biodiversity Metric 4.0 can be found on the Natural England website, and includes user guides, calculation tools, the small sites metric, condition assessment sheets and associated guidance documents.
What has changed?
After feedback from the consultation in autumn 2022, the guidance was streamlined and made more user-friendly, with habitat names changed to align with relevant habitat classifications, such as UKHab, and amendments made to the calculation tool and to the formula of the spatial risk multiplier, which will allow developers to consider how and where BNG can be secured and delivered while also assessing the likely number of units that would be required.
Chalk stream, a globally rare habitat, by Peter O’Connor via Flickr
Additionally, ‘bespoke compensation’ will now be required if any watercourse habitats that are classified as having ‘very high distinctiveness’ cannot be retained or enhanced. This type of compensation is required for all ‘very high distinctiveness’ habitats considered ‘irreplaceable’, such as peat bogs, to prevent the replacement of these high-value habitats with low-value habitats. Bespoke compensation includes habitat creation, enhancement or restoration, possibly on a large scale in recognition of the irreplaceability of the habitat lost or damaged. This bespoke design is needed as compensation for irreplaceable habitats cannot be determined by metrics and must be custom-made based on the specifics of the habitat lost or damaged.
What happens now?
Natural England will continue to work with a number of parties concerning any future changes and improvements to the metic, with major updates occurring every 3-5 years.
Summary
Creating credits can generate reliable income from non-yielding land. Landowners need to assess areas using a preliminary ecological appraisal, have ecologists produce a net gain plan and have a specialist lawyer draft a legal agreement.
These areas can be sold on the open market and could generate either a one-off payment or regular instalments over the 30-year period.
This would diversify to the landowners’ portfolio and potentially improve business resilience. However, the land would be locked for 30 years, the work involved may go above and beyond the initial income and changing the land use could have tax implications.
Version 4.0 of the Biodiversity Net Gain Metric has been published, with several changes including streamlining to make the guidance more user-friendly, changing habitat names to align with relevant habit classifications such as UKHab, and amendments to the calculation tool.
From now, Natural England will continue to work on the metric, with major updates occurring every 3-5 years.
Artificial nests raise hopes that golden eagles will be able to breed in southern Scotland. Two eyries were placed high in trees on a private estate near where three young eagles have been spotted. More than 17 privately owned estates support the South of Scotland Golden Eagle project and a series of translocations have increased the area’s population from a few pairs to 38. This is the highest number recorded for three centuries.
New data shows that 48% of UK bird species declined between 2015 and 2020. Woodland birds were shown to be faring the worst, with a 12% decline. The Environment Act passed into law in 2021, requiring a halt in species decline by 2030 but campaigners believe radical changes to government policy are needed if this target is going to be met.
The number of critically endangered fish species in Australia has doubled. Nine new species are now thought to be on the brink of extinction with calls for urgent action to control invasive freshwater species. Invasive trout have caused the ranges of many of these fish to be reduced to extremely small areas, with many only having one population left.
Climate change
The UK’s insulation scheme would take 300 years to meet government targets to reduce fuel poverty, according to critics. The Great British Insulation Scheme aims to insulate 300,000 homes a year over the next three years but does not go far enough to reach the 19 million homes that need better insulation. Home insulation grants are thought to be a crucial part of the government’s plan to have a net-zero economy by 2050.
Global ocean surface temperatures are at the highest since records began. The average temperature is at around 21.1C since the start of April, with the previous highest being 21C in 2016. This rise in temperature will likely lead to more extreme weather and marine storms, as well as polar ice caps melting and coral bleaching.
Coral bleaching in Hawaii by Caitlin Seaview Survey via Wikimedia Commons
Wildlife crime
Roughly 1,000 pounds of illegally caught shark was seized in Texas. A recent study shows that humans are to blame for the 70% decline in sharks and rays, and that overfishing must be stopped or they could go extinct. Texas banned the trade of shark fins in 2015 but the state has long been a hot spot for shark fishing and trade.
The Spring 2023 issue of Conservation Land Management (CLM) is now out, the first of volume 21, which marks CLM’s 20th year in existence. This issue features an exciting addition to CLM, a brand new Habitat Management for Invertebrates series, beginning with two articles. The remaining articles in this issue cover a range of subjects, including ghost pond restoration and the removal of weirs and dams to improve river habitats – read a summary of the articles below.
The new Habitat Management for Invertebrates series aims to encourage those who are involved in making management decisions on a site to consider invertebrates. In the series’ first article, Roger Morris, Keith Alexander and Robert Wolton highlight the key factors that site managers need to think about when incorporating invertebrates into management plans, discussing the types of data that are most useful and how to interpret these data.
The next article in the series goes on to focus specifically on the management of Aspen forests in the Scottish Highlands. There are around 15 rare or notable species of fly that are associated with the decaying cambium layer under the bark of dead Aspen, the Aspen Hoverfly Hammerschmidtia ferruginea being one of these. The Aspen Hoverfly is considered a flagship species – the correct management for the Aspen Hoverfly benefits several other key species. The priority in management is to make sure that there is a fresh supply of dead wood, and Iain MacGowan describes how this achieved in a way that provides optimal conditions for Aspen Hoverfly larvae, by either moving snapped branches with a diameter over 25cm closer to ground or by bringing in dead wood from adjacent sites. Look out for more articles in the Habitat Management for Invertebrates series in future issues of CLM.
Aspen in the Scottish Highlands. Iain MacGowan/NMS
Only 1% of the rivers in England, Wales and Scotland are free from artificial barriers, which pose a major threat to river wildlife. They lead to habitat fragmentation, interrupt the flow of sediment and obstruct the movement of fish and other organisms. Although some of these barriers have their uses, such as for hydropower, drinking water and irrigation, many are now obsolete. Tim Jacklin outlines the benefits to river habitats of removing these barriers and illustrates possible approaches by describing several different weir removal projects in the UK.
Before and after the removal of a weir in the Dovedale valley. Tim Jacklin
With the move to more intensive farming during the last century, many farmland ponds, which were once dotted across much of the British countryside, were filled in. But not all is lost. These former ponds, known as ‘ghost ponds’, can be resurrected; the seeds of wetland plants and stonewort oospores are still viable and, once a pond is restored, wetland plant communities are quick to recolonise. Carl Sayer et al. describe how to locate ghost ponds, the methods used for excavation, and the management of ponds post restoration.
A resurrected ghost pond. Carl Sayer
Soils play a key role in a number of ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration, water management and nutrient cycling, and although they were once largely ignored, there is an emerging understanding of the importance of improving the health of soil, particularly in an agricultural context. With a focus on soils on farms, Becky Willson, from the Farm Carbon Toolkit, discusses what soil health is and why it is important, and the key characteristics of good-quality soil.
In this and every issue you can expect to see Briefing, keeping you up to date with the latest training courses, events and publications, and On the ground which provides helpful tips or updates on products relevant to land management. Other features, such as Review, which can include letters from readers or updates from our authors, also regularly appear in CLM.
CLM is published four times a year, in March, June, September and December, and is available by subscription only, delivered straight to your door. Subscriptions start from £22 per year. If you would like to read any of these articles, back issues are also available to purchase individually (subject to availability).
If you are involved in a conservation project and think your experiences could be useful to other practitioners, we would love to hear from you. Feel free to contact us if you are interested in writing for CLM – we will be happy to discuss your ideas with you.
Ospreys are being reintroduced to Ireland, more than 200 years after they were declared extinct. The species has not bred in Ireland since the 1700s but, after years of lobbying, the National Parks and Wildlife Service has agreed to reintroduce Osprey this year. A report from last year showed that 25% of Irish birds are in severe decline, with 37% more showing moderate decline. There are now calls to reintroduce more birds that are now extinct in Ireland.
People are being warned to leave capercailies alone, as this endangered bird stops breeding when disturbed. This species, whose Scottish population consists of only 542 individuals, is on the brink of extinction. It is a criminal offence to disturb capercallie while they are lekking (where males gather to display and fight for the attention of females), nesting or raising young. A birdwatcher was even arrested and charged last year for disturbing them.
Climate change
The hot, dry summer of 2022 has had a major impact on some UK butterfly species. The new study was conducted by Butterfly Conservation, the UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, British Trust for Ornithology and Joint Nature Conservation Committee. It showed that species such as the green-veined white, small white, small tortoiseshell, peacock and brimstone experienced greatly reduced numbers following the widespread drought. This is thought to be due to insufficient food for the caterpillars as food plants withered and died in the drought conditions.
The net zero strategy shows that the UK will miss its 2030 emissions cuts targets. According to the government, its policies will only achieve 92% of cuts required, but experts think that is a ‘very generous reading’. The UK has a legally binding requirement to reach net zero emissions by 2050, and it commited under the Paris agreement to cut emissions by 68% by 2030 (compared with 1990 levels). The new strategy is a mix of wins and losses: it requires car manufacturers to ensure 22% of their car sales and 10% of van sales must be of electric vehicles by 2024, but does not lift the ban on onshore windfarms and contains little reference to agriculture.
Policy
A new multi-million pound grant scheme has been launched by Natural England to help rare and threatened species, such as water voles, curlews and natterjack toads. The Species Recovery Programme Capital Grant Scheme will provide projects with £18 million over two years, delivering targeted conservation action through the creation and improvement of specific wildlife habitats, conservation translocation, research and creating solutions to address species decline.
Scientists have found the deepest fish ever recorded at 8,300 metres in the Izu-Ogasawara trench near Japan. A team made up of researchers from Western Australia and Tokyo captured footage of the animal, an unknown snailfish species belonging to the genus Pseudoliparis. Two other snailfish, Pseudoliparis belyaevi, were also filmed at a depth of 8,022m. At this depth, the pressure is 800 times greater than at the surface; snailfish are adapted to live at these high pressures by not having swim bladders and they have a gelatinous layer instead of scales.
A newly described leafless orchid in Sri Lanka has been named. The species was found in a lowland wet zone forest and has been named Gastrodia pushparaga, after a precious yellow sapphire commonly extracted from the same district. This is the third Gestrodia species found in Sri Lanka, the other two being discovered in 1906 and 2020.
An invasive snail is helping an endangered bird in Florida. The snail kite is bouncing back from the threat of extinction, due to the abundance of a new food source. Their original food source, a local apple snail, suffered severe declines due to droughts in the early 2000s. This new non-native island apple snail is five times bigger than the original species; continued monitoring of the snail kite has shown that their bills are getting bigger to accommodate this larger food source.
The Yangtze finless porpoise population has increased for the first time. The latest census conducted by the Chinese Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs shows that the population has increased by over 23 percent in the past five years, from 1,012 to 1,249. This is seen as evidence that the conservation effort for the world’s only freshwater porpoise is effective.
Humans are altering the diet of the Tasmanian devil. Human-modified landscapes may be narrowing the diet of this species and accelerating their decline, according to a new study. Devils living in human-impacted areas, such as cleared land, fed on mainly medium-sized mammals. However, in undisturbed habitats, their diet was broader, including smaller animals such as birds.
There is a drought risk to multiple English regions after a dry February. England had its driest February for 30 years, with some rivers at their lowest on record. Scientists are warning that South West England and East Anglia are at risk of drought unless ‘unseasonably sustained rainfall’ occurs in the coming months.
Global fresh water demand will outstrip supply by 40% by 2030, according to experts. The new report calls for governments to stop subsidising the extraction and overuse of water, and for industries from mining to manufacturing to overhaul any wasteful practices. The report has set out seven key recommendations, including scaling up investment in water management and pricing water properly.
Scientists have delivered the ‘final warning’ on the climate crisis. The final part of the sixth assessment report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was set out on Monday. This comprehensive review of the knowledge of the climate crisis took eight years to compile and has one clear message: act now, or it will be too late. The report, called the synthesis report, will most likely be the last assessment while the world has a chance of limiting global temperature rises to 1.5°C.
Policy
Ecological emergency has been declared by councillors in South Tyneside, UK. This is part of efforts to boost the biodiversity in the borough, while also safeguarding the natural environment. This declaration has set out 11 pledges which will increase ‘eco-literacy’, develop ‘member champions’ for biodiversity and ensure that council strategic decisions and policies will consider and maximise nature recovery.
Biodiversity Net Gain (BNG) is a new scheme from the government which requires that all new developments improve the natural environment rather than degrade it. From November 2023 onwards, new developments must make sure that the habitat for wildlife is in a better position than it was before the development.
The developer must try to avoid any loss of habitat in the land that is being developed. If this is not possible, additional habitat must be created, either on-site or off-site; at an alternative area that the developer owns, by purchasing units from a land manager or by buying statutory credits from the government. A combination of all three options can be used to make up BNG, but approval from local planning authorities must be gained.
Who will be affected by this new scheme?
The main people who will be impacted by this new scheme are:
Land managers
Developers/construction
Local Planning Authorities
Ecologists
If you own or manage land in England, you can get paid by selling biodiversity units to developers. Currently, the new scheme will only cover England, although existing regulation in Wales requires developments to provide a net benefit for biodiversity. Within Scotland, the 2019 Planning Act requires developments to provide positive impacts for biodiversity.
How much gain is needed?
Under the Environment Act 2021, all new developments need to deliver at least a 10% net gain, with the habitats needing to be secure for at least 30 years. These areas must be either delivered on-site, off-site or via the new statutory biodiversity credits scheme. A national register will hold records and information of all net gain delivery sites.
How is this measured?
An area will be assessed based on its value to nature so that developers or land managers can understand the biodiversity value of a site. The biodiversity metric can be used to assess the value of the land, demonstrate biodiversity gains or losses, measure direct impacts on biodiversity and compare proposals for creating or enhancing habitats on- or off-site. Creating a consistent approach to biodiversity assessment will help planning authorities and communities to better understand the impacts that development can have on the natural environment and to provide the necessary monitoring to ensure that environmental improvements and mitigations for habitat loss are effective.
The metric will calculate the value of a site as ‘biodiversity units’, which are based on the size of the habitat, its quality or condition and location, including whether the sites are in locations identified as local nature priorities. For example, each habitat condition is assessed based on certain criteria, including essential criteria that must be met to achieve a good condition score. The condition is then scored as either poor, moderate or good. Other factors that affect the biodiversity value include how connected the habitat is with other areas and the rarity or diversity of the habitat and the species found in it.
There have been multiple versions of the biodiversity metric, starting in 2012 when the first metric was piloted. With each new version, changes have been made based on suggestions put forward by experts. Currently, biodiversity metric 3.1 is being used, but the government is advising that a future biodiversity metric 4.0 will be Defra’s standard from November 2023. The calculation tools and user guides can be found on Natural England’s Access to Evidence website.
Once the values are obtained, the developers must deliver a biodiversity gain plan, setting out how the development will deliver this net gain and allowing planning authorities to assess whether the proposals meet objectives. The plan should cover:
how any adverse impacts on habitats will be minimised,
the biodiversity value of the onsite habitat pre- and post-development,
the biodiversity value of any offsite habitat,
if any statutory biodiversity credits will need to be purchased,
any further requirements set out in other legislations.
The UK has lost 90% of its wetland habitats. Image by Stephen Gidley via Flickr.
How will this impact the environment in England?
Development, land-use change and urban expansions are among the leading causes of biodiversity loss. The UK is one of the most depleted countries, having lost nearly half of our biodiversity since the 1970s. We are ranked in the worst 10% globally for biodiversity intactness. Overall, 41% of species in the UK have declined, with 26% of mammals at risk of extinction. We’ve lost 97% of our meadows, 90% of our wetlands and 80% of lowland heathlands. A scheme where development will no longer lead to biodiversity loss, but instead to net gain, is a step in the right direction to preventing further loss and helping to begin repairing our degraded environment.
Replacing any established habitats with new ones, however, will have a temporary negative impact on the environment, as newly created habitats can take years to be properly established. This would mean a short-term loss in biodiversity which may have serious consequences for vulnerable species. This is essentially the same issue with COP26’s Declaration on Forest and Land Use, which does not actually forbid the cutting down of forests, but rather aims to end net deforestation, with forest loss being replaced “sustainably”. However, replacing primary or old-growth forests with new growth has serious negative environmental consequences, as the highly complex ecosystems supported by old-growth forests have an irreplaceable value.
There is hope, however, as the Environment Act includes provisions which will exempt irreplaceable habitats from the BNG requirement, as the National Planning Policy Framework states that “development resulting in the loss or deterioration of irreplaceable habitats…should be refused, unless there are wholly exceptional reasons and a suitable compensation strategy exists”. This, therefore, will prevent the new scheme from weakening existing protection for these irreplaceable habitats such as ancient woodlands.
Ancient woodlands, areas of woodland that have persisted since 1600 (1750 in Scotland), only make up 2.5% of the UK. Image by ines s. via Flickr.
Most important, however, is the need for accurate monitoring to ensure that the pre- and post-development biodiversity values are accurate. A recent report has shown that HS2 Ltd has been undervaluing existing nature and overvaluing its compensation measures, with biodiversity loss from Phase 1 of HS2 being at least 7.9 times higher than calculated, and loss caused by Phase 2a 3.6 times higher. The report found that habitats such as watercourses, ponds and trees had been completely missed out from the data and habitats such as well-established tree-lined and species-rich hedgerows have been valued lower than the new hedgerows HS2 Ltd is planning to plant. Inaccurate reporting will undermine the main aim of the BNG scheme, reducing its effectiveness and continuing the degradation of biodiversity in England.
What are the barriers?
There are several issues which may impact the successful implementation of this new method. The first is a lack of resources within local authorities. All new biodiversity gain plans must be approved by local authorities to make sure they are accurate and meet the correct objectives, therefore there must be someone with ecological expertise within the local planning authorities who can review applications and oversee the delivery of these plans. Additionally, local planning authorities may not be able to identify and set up off-site compensation measures needed if a net gain cannot be produced on-site.
Additionally, a lack of clear information, awareness or training for developers, land owners/managers, planning authorities and farmers is another barrier to the success of this method. If those involved are not given access to the correct training, it is unlikely that BNG will be implemented successfully, delaying developments and putting our environment at continued risk. A further issue includes cost implications, as delivering BNG will involve an extra cost that will need to either be absorbed by developers or passed onto customers. However, the scheme will open a new market for landowners, helping to provide environmentally positive incomes.
There has also been criticism about how the previous iterations of the biodiversity metric classified habitats. Scrubby landscapes, such as those dominated by bramble and ragwort, were classed as a sign of degradation, despite them being key features of many rewilding projects. Certain plants, such as docks, were considered ‘undesirable’ despite being a key food plant for many insect species. Due to these classifications, these areas might not be properly compensated for, meaning that the net gains planning would be inaccurate.
Ragwort, fed on by a cinnabar moth caterpillar. Image by caroline legg via Flickr.
Summary
From November 2023, all new developments must deliver a 10% biodiversity net gain, either through on- or off-site plans or by purchasing statutory credits.
The biodiversity value of the habitats on the development site must be determined using the Biodiversity Metric 4.0, which should be released in Spring 2023.
This scheme will help to reduce biodiversity loss and begin to repair the environment in England, but only if it is properly implemented and enforced.
A lack of funding, awareness and training could be barriers to the successful implementation of this scheme. Other issues such as additional costs and poor habitat classifications are also risks to success.
Australia plans to make an area the size of Germany into a marine park in the Southern Ocean. The area around the Macquarie Island will strengthen the protections currently in place, helping to manage the important ecosystem for millions of seabirds, seals and penguins. The proposal will be open for public consultation, with the plan allowing for the continuation of the small Patagonian toothfish fishery. The expansion of the marine park will increase the amount of protected area in Australia’s oceans to 48.2%.
A historic ocean treaty has been agreed upon after a decade of talks. The High Seas Treaty will protect 30% of international waters by 2030. Currently, only 1.2% of these waters are protected, yet all countries have a right to fish, ship and do research in international waters. The new treaty will establish marine protected areas in international waters limiting how much fishing can take place, as well as restrictions on shipping lane routes and activities such as deep-sea mining.
Climate change
Rising sea temperatures have caused sea urchin populations to plummet in West Australia. A number of molluscs and sea urchins on Rottnest Island have seen declines in numbers of up to 90% between 2007 and 2021. Researchers from Curtin University believe rising sea temperatures are to blame. Rader Reef and Cape Vlamingh are designated as sanctuary zones, with the highest level of protection from human activity, but this still isn’t enough to protect against the catastrophic decline in biodiversity.
A newly described snake is being threatened by mining in Ecuador and Panama. The DiCaprio’s snake is one of five new species of snail-eating snakes from the upper Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador and the Choco-Darien forests of Panama. Both areas have seen an increase in illegal gold mining along rivers and streams during the COVID-19 pandemic which, along with deforestation, is threatening a number of species in these habitats.
Researchers have found 26 Australian species that have recovered from the brink of extinction. They reviewed all the animals that have been listed as threatened under Australia’s Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act between 2000 and 2022 and discovered that 15 mammals, eight birds, four frogs and one fish no longer met the criteria to be listed as threatened under the Act. This number includes three that had been legitimately delisted during this time. The researchers attributed this recovery to targeted management. However, far more species have become threatened than recovered over the past 20 years.
Canada’s environment minister is planning to use a rare emergency order to protect the last of an endangered owl species. The species is in an area in British Columbia where old-growth forest has been slated for further clearcutting. The northen spotted owl faces serious threats to its population, as only one wild-born northern spotted owl remains, with two others, born as part of a breeding programme, recently released into the wild. Before industrial logging, there were nearly 1,000 northern spotted owls in British Columbia.
Northern spotted owl by Kyle Sullivan via Bureau of Land Management Oregon and Washington via Flickr
New discoveries
A species of ‘ethereal fairy lantern’ has been rediscovered in Japan after being thought extinct for 30 years. The flowering plant in the genus Thismia lives entirely underground except for its lantern-like flowers, rising above the soil during the wet season. Resembling mushrooms, one such species was originally discovered from a single specimen in 1992, but after scientists could not locate another and its habitat was destroyed, it was presumed extinct. A new individual has now been located 30 kilometres away from the original.
