An Oxford University study has revealed that eating less meat would be like taking 8 million cars off the road. Low meat-eaters were found to produce 5.37kg of greenhouse gases per day, almost half of the 10.24kg that big meat-eaters produced. Fish-eaters and vegetarians produce 4.74kg and 4.16kg respectively while vegans produce only 2.47kg. The results, which also detail land use, water use and biodiversity impacts, show the benefits that a low-meat diet can have for the planet. It has long been established that meat production has a bigger carbon footprint than plant production, but the level of detail seen in the study is unprecedented according to scientists.
Vegetables at market. Image by Open Grid Scheduler via Flickr.
The former head of the UN climate body the IPCC has warned that the world will miss the 1.5°C warming limit target. Leading British climate scientist Professor Sir Bob Watson told the BBC that he is “pessimistic” about even achieving a 2°C limit. The 1.5°C limit was agreed at the UN conference in Paris in 2015 and has become a focus for global efforts to tackle climate change. The IPCC has said that failing to meet the 1.5°C threshold could expose millions more people to losing their homes to rising sea levels, increased water insecurity, and devastating coral reef biodiversity losses. To meet the 1.5°C or 2°C targets, greenhouse gases need to be reduced; however, emissions are continuing to rise.
Extinction Risk
The world’s most endangered large whale is closer to extinction than experts thought. In a blow for whale biodiversity, only a few hundred North Atlantic right whales are estimated to remain in the world’s oceans according to the NOAA. With only 70 reproductively active females remaining, the species is fast approaching extinction. Unexpectedly high mortality since 2017, in large part from human activity, has resulted in a catastrophic decline in right whale numbers. Research by the New England Aquarium has suggested that vessel strikes and fishing gear entanglements are the greatest threat to the 100 ton marine mammal; 86% of identified whales were found to have been caught in fishing gear.
Pod of North Atlantic right whales. Image by Sea to Shore Alliance/NOAA via Flickr.
Golden paintbrush has been removed from the endangered species list following recovery efforts. The US Fish and Wildlife Service has taken the flowery yellow plant off the endangered species list after more than 25 years. The flower can be found in the Pacific Northwest where its native range stretches from Oregon to southwestern British Columbia. Golden paintbrush numbers shrunk significantly due to pressure from invasive species, recreational picking and fire suppression. However, following replanting efforts, the number of sites the species is present in has increased from 10 to 48. In a boost for local biodiversity, the plant’s recovery could also benefit associated species such as the Taylor’s checkerspot butterfly and Mazama pocket gopher.
Conservation
The south of England saw its first white-tailed eagle birth in 240 years. White-tailed eagles were once widespread across England but became extinct due to human persecution. The birds, also known as sea eagles, are Britain’s largest birds of prey with a wingspan approaching 2.5 meters (8.2 ft). A Forestry England and Roy Dennis Wildlife Foundation project re-introduced the birds to the Isle of Wight from northern Scotland in 2020. Licensed ornithologists have ringed the chick and fitted it with a tracking device.
White-tailed eagle in flight. Image by Per Harald Olsen/NTNU via Flickr.
In a similarly successful re-introduction programme, pine martens saw a third successful breeding year in the Forest of Dean. The initiative led by the Gloucester Wildlife Trust introduced 35 individuals to the forest between 2019 and 2021 with numbers now swelling to close to 60. Pine martin populations at one point were pushed to the remote corners of Scotland due to hunting and deforestation; however, recent recovery programmes in Wales and England have seen the elusive mammal returning from the brink of extinction south of the Scottish border.
Policy
G20 countries failed to reach an agreement on cutting fossil fuels following recent meetings in India. The summit saw disagreements over a goal of tripling renewable energy capacity by 2030 which Saudi Arabia, Russia, China, South Africa and Indonesia are known to oppose. G20 members account for more than three-quarters of global emissions and so efforts by the group to reduce carbon emissions are essential if global warming targets are to be met.
New Discoveries
A study has found that post-menopause orca mothers protect their sons from other orcas. Using data from the Center for Whale Research’s annual photographic census, researchers found that if a male orca’s mother was still alive and no longer reproducing, the male would have reduced scarring when compared to peers with a mother still reproducing or without a living mother. Females can live up to 90 years in the wild with an average of 22 years after menopause. Previous studies have shown that post-menopause mothers also aid their families by sharing food.
Orca surfacing in Washington State. Image by Maya Sears via Flickr.
Read More
See our previous biodiversity news stories covering topics from corvid behaviour to capercaillie populations.
Dutch scientists have revealed that corvids are using anti-bird spikes to build their nests. Anti-bird spikes are often attached to building ledges to prevent birds from nesting, and this discovery was prompted when nests constructed almost entirely from the sharp metal objects were found in Rotterdam and Antwerp. It has been suggested that the spikes may help protect their nests and could even be used as a display to impress potential mates.
Salinity changes are threatening marine ecosystems, according to researchers at the University of North Florida. Changes in salt content can occur due to land use and climate change and are expected to intensify with warming oceans. Vital estuarine and coastal zones could quickly face ecosystem collapse as groups such as corals, plankton and seagrass are affected by the changes.
Climate crisis
Global average temperatures reached a new high for the third time in a week at the start of July. A record of 17.01°C early in the week was broken twice more with average temperatures reaching 17.23°C on the Thursday. While unofficial, the record points a concerning trend in recent decades of higher year-on-year global temperatures. Scientists have attributed the cause of the unprecedented temperatures to a combination of human-induced global warming and the El Niño climate pattern.
The global shipping industry has agreed to a goal of net-zero by 2050. Industry voices and small island nations have largely welcomed the deal, but it has provoked fury among environmental groups who believe the plan will do little to keep temperatures below the 1.5°C threshold set out as part of the Paris climate agreement in 2015. Shipping is responsible for around 3% of CO2 emissions and campaigners are warning that emissions targets set out in plan will see the shipping industry exhaust its carbon budget by 2032.
One of the UK’s rarest and most threatened birds continues to thrive at Newport Wetlands National Nature Reserve in Wales. This year’s nest sites have seen the fledging of six Bittern chicks due to the provision of high-quality reedbed habitat. Bitterns were previously driven to the point of extinction following persecution and habitat loss. The reserve’s wetlands are managed by Natural Resource Wales in partnership with Newport City Council and the RSPB. Wetlands are also valuable in the battle against climate change acting as important carbon stores.
Bittern in flight at RSPB Minsmere, Suffolk. Image by Caroline Legg via Flickr.
Male Western Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus). Image by Ron Knight via Flickr.
Policy
A phasing down of fossil fuels is inevitable and essential, Cop28’s president has said. Sultan Al Jaber has called for a ramping up of renewable energy capacity to enable fossil fuel use reductions. He will host the climate talks which will be held in the United Arab Emirates in November where a Cop28 plan for a target of tripling of global renewable energy production is expected to be announced.
A new study indicates that megalodon, the extinct shark species, were warm-blooded. The researchers found that Otodus megalodon may have had a body temperature that was significantly higher than other sharks, more consistent with having a degree of internal heat production similar to that of modern warm blooded animals. The higher metabolic costs associated with this may have contributed to its vulnerability to extinction.
Joshua trees are officially protected in California, after the passing of the Western Joshua Tree Conservation Act. This law bans the removal of Joshua trees without a permit, creates a fund to protect the species and mandates consultation on the rule’s implementation with Native American tribes. According to scientists, by 2100 just 0.02% of the tree’s habitat in Joshua Tree National Park will remain viable without mitigating climate change.
A new study has found that bats thrive in restored wetlands. Researchers from the University of Turku measured the impact of wetland restoration on bats. The Hydrology LIFE project has successfully restored more than 5,000 hectares of wetlands across more than 100 locations. The study, which is part of this project, showed that wetland restoration can significantly increase the activity of bats. By monitoring bat activity in 21 sites across Finland over four summers between 2018-2022, the researchers were able to attribute this notable increase in activity to the improved abundance of insects in these areas.
Natural England has designated a Cornish moorland as a nature conservation area. The 59 blocks of land in Penwrith Moors in Cornwall are now sites of specific scientific interest, a move aiming to preserve precious flora and fauna. There has been criticism from farmers, as this would mean further restrictions. Natural England decided this area, which covers around 3,000 hectares, should be designated an SSSI because it is an important habitat for rare birds, plants and insects.
A new funding partnership between Beaver Trust and the Ecological Restoration Fund will help to support the restoration of and co-existence with beavers across Britain. This £150,000 grant will be used to support two key areas of Beaver Trust’s work: releasing beavers into new sites and providing their team with the equipment and resources they need to carry out mitigation and trapping.
Extinction risk
Reef sharks are facing a heightened extinction risk. A new study has revealed that overfishing is pushing reef sharks towards extinction, with a global decline of 63% on average in five of the main shark species living on coral reefs. After studying 22,000 hours of footage from stations across 391 reefs in 67 nations and territories, the researchers found that grey reef, blacktip reef, white tip reef, nurse and Caribbean reef sharks are all in decline.
Rainforest loss accelerated last year compared to 2021, despite the pledge signed by 100 international leaders to end deforestation by 2030. Brazil led in rainforest loss, with a 15% increase over the prior year. The Democratic Republic of the Congo, the country with the second-most rainforest, also had major losses last year, much of which was agriculture related.
Brazilian authorities have announced the seizure of almost 29 tons of shark fins, coming from an estimated 10,000 blue and shortfin mako sharks. It is believed that the vessels used fishing gear specifically for targeted shark fishing, which is prohibited. Shortfin mako sharks were placed on the country’s endangered species list in May and blue sharks are under consideration for inclusion.
New discoveries
The Victorian grassland earless dragon has been rediscovered, having been thought to have been extinct in the wild since 1969. This species was once widespread in the native grasslands west of Melbourne but the population declined due to habitat loss and predation. Zoos Victoria had been actively searching for the dragon since 2017 and, now a surviving population has been found, are working to establish a plan to ensure the species’ survival.
Fears of hottest year on record as global temperatures spike. Preliminary global average temperatures taken so far in June are nearly 1?C above previously recorded June levels since 1979. It is thought that the gathering El Niño event may propel 2023 into becoming the hottest year ever recorded. This naturally recurring phenomenon will likely add heat to the long-term warming conditions already caused by the burning of fossil fuels.
Devon’s Wildlife Trust (DWT) is planting a temperate rainforest near Totnes with its share of a £38 million Aviva fund. The 30-hectare site has a 105-year lease, which will allow DWT to plant two-thirds of the land with native tree species. Rainforests of the British Isles have been largely destroyed over hundreds of years, now covering less than 1% of Britain. DWT will create new rainforest close to existing examples of the ancient, wooded landscapes in the Dart Valley and on the southern edges of Dartmoor.
Rare hazel dormice will be reintroduced into the National Forest near Calke Abbey in Derbyshire. This native species has seen a 51% decline nationally since 2000 and is locally extinct in the area. People’s Trust for Endangered Species (PTES), which will release 38 individuals, is working as part of Natural England’s Species Recovery Programme. Since 1993, 1,078 dormice have been reintroduced to 25 different woodlands in 13 countries.
Around 20 captive-bred wildcats are being released in secret locations across the Scottish Highlands. The animals were raised in captivity as part of a breeding programme run by the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland, which aims to release up to 60 individuals over the next three years. Scottish wildcats are functionally extinct in the wild in the UK, therefore it is hoped that these reintroductions will help to save the species.
Extinction risk
Campaigners fear that East West Rail will lead to the loss of rare species. A new route between Bedford and Cambridge has been confirmed, with the spokesman for the line saying that chosen route would offer an “environmentally sustainable solution”. However, local campaigners believe the scheme could threaten Red List species, such as skylarks and yellowhammers. They believe an ancient woodland which provides habitats and a local wildlife corridor will be dramatically impacted by the route. The company has committed to a 10% net biodiversity gain target across the whole project, however, and has already established 20 ecological compensation sites across the first stage.
A new study is warning that the mass “sixth extinction” is well underway, with nearly half of the world’s animal species now in danger of becoming extinct. The study, More Losers than Winners, examined global population trends from approximately 71,000 animal species. They aimed to determine how many are at risk due to threats such as loss of habitat, harmful use of pesticides and herbicides, and the long-term impact of the climate crisis. The researchers found that only 3% of animal species were growing, while 49% showed stagnant population growth. 48% showed declining populations.
New discoveries
A new flying gecko species has been discovered in northern India. The Mizoram parachute gecko is one of 14 geckos known to take to the air, using a combination of skin flaps and webbed feet. The researchers hope that this new discovery will highlight the underappreciated biodiversity of northern India and encourage greater efforts to document its wildlife.
The first national Marine and Coastal Wildlife Code has been launched in England, which will protect animals and habitats by helping people enjoy the coast responsibly. England’s coastline contains vitally important habitats, including sand dunes, saltmarshes and a significant proportion of Europe’s vegetated shingle beaches. The coastline also supports a number of key species, such as 95% of Europe’s grey seal population and 25% of Europe’s breeding seabirds.
This builds on the existing Countryside Code but only applies to England. Scotland, Ireland and Wales have previously produced similar coastal and marine wildlife codes and guidance, which should be reviewed if you are looking to visit these areas.
If a seal is looking at you, you are causing a disturbance. Image by Simon Palmer
What does the code include?
Similarly to the Countryside Code, this new code aims to act as a guide to help visitors act responsibly around marine wildlife. We all have a responsibility to protect our local wildlife. The guidance from the UK government for England is:
1. Be aware of how you could cause a disturbance
Many people may not realise the impact disturbing wildlife can have, but if an animal is repeatedly disturbed, it can lead to stress, injury and even death. You can also displace animals from their preferred habitat, disrupting behaviours such as migration, breeding, feeding and resting. This disturbance can also increase their vulnerability to predators.
The impact of disturbance on seals has been brought to the public’s attention in recent years, with many organisations calling for people to be aware of the damage caused. Disturbances that force seals to flee from haul-out sites into the sea can result in them struggling to put on or maintain weight and unable to properly feed their pups. Seals can also receive injuries such as gashes from sharp rocks or even broken ribs, which can be difficult for a diving species to heal from. Increased vigilance also wastes energy and can reduce the amount of time spent feeding or resting. This increased energy expenditure can increase stress as well as the seal’s vulnerability to disease, reducing overall fitness and increasing mortality rates.
You can disturb wildlife by approaching or touching an animal; crowding, circling, separating or chasing them; feeding them; making noise; or damaging or altering habitats. This can include disturbance by dogs, therefore pets should be kept on a lead or under effective control when at the coast. An easy way to reduce your impact is to remember that if an animal has repeatedly noticed you, you have caused a disturbance and it is best to move away and take a wider berth.
Kayakers straying too close to seals. Image by Simon Palmer
2. Know when wildlife are most vulnerable
There are certain times when animals are particularly vulnerable, such as during breeding seasons, in winter and when they’re resting or moulting. It can be difficult to know when these times are, as they often differ between different species. Therefore, it is important to check signs in local areas, as they should tell you where there are access restrictions, and to research the wildlife in the area you are heading. Local councils, Wildlife Trusts and local harbours or ports may be able to provide you with this information.
For seabirds, ‘bird nesting season’ is officially from February until September, therefore it is important to consider access restrictions, dog activities and the impact you may be having on an area during this time. Certain species, such as ringed plovers and oystercatchers, lay their eggs on open ground such as beaches, with little to no surounding vegetation, and so these eggs are vulnerable to being stepped on. Local councils may put up signs in areas where these species are known to breed to discourage visitors but caution should be taken on any beach.
Breeding and pupping season for grey seals can start as early as June in the UK, lasting until January. Pups are particularly vulnerable to human disturbances as this can cause a seperation between the mother and pup or interrupt lactation, potentially leading to pup abandonment. Due to their heavy white coat, grey seal pups can’t swim during their first few weeks and will be left on beaches while their mothers hunt. If disturbed, they are therefore unable to swim away. Addtionally, disturbances that cause stampeeds during pupping season can increase pup mortality rates. You should never approach a seal pup and if you suspect one has been abandoned or is in need of attention, you should keep your distance and call for help.
Other important breeding periods are March to September for seahorses and summer months for cetaceans. Additionally, the September to March wintering season is important for many birds, as they use this time to conserve energy and build up reserves, often for long migrations. Disturbance during this time can reduce their likelihood of survive winter or these migrations.
3. Recognise when you are causing a disturbance
Many people do not have negative intentions and simply wish to appreciate and experience the wonderful wildlife we have along out coastlines. But it is important to recognise the signs for when animals are becoming uncomfortable with your presence.
There are a number of behaviours you can look out for that will indicate a disturbance. For birds, this includes moving away from you, in flight or by walking; flapping their wings at you; and attacking. Seals are more likely to look directly at you, move suddenly from a restful position, suddenly dive into the water, or swim away from you. Cetaceans such as dolphins and whales will slap the water with their flippers or tail, dive away from you, or group together. Other species such as sharks, skates, rays, turtles or seahorses will swim away if disturbed and should not be followed.
If a seal is looking at you, you are causing a disturbance. Image by Simon Palmer
4. Act responsibly
This is the main aim of this code, to encourage people to use common sense and act responsibly. As a rule of thumb, try to stay at least 100 metres away from any wildlife and try not to approach animals from behind or head-on. If you notice any signs of disturbance, you should immediately and calmly move further away.
You should never chase, follow or harass any wildlife. It is important to not feed or touch wildlife either, as you could unintentially be causing serious harm. Other actions such as creating loud noises and using flash photography should be avoided.
5. Use watercraft responsibly
Crafts like boats and jetskis can be a disturbance to wildlife as they can injure animals and create noise both above and below the water. You should slow down to under 6 knots if you notice an animal, stay at least 100 metres away (further if you notice that you are causing a disturbance), and keep even more distance if there are more than two watercrafts nearby. You should also maintain your engine to reduce noise and make sure to launch or moor your craft correctly.
Image by Simon Palmer
6. Enjoy water activities without harming wildlife
It is important to take care not to disturb wildlife when you enter or exit the sea, therefore you should avoid doing this through sensitive habitats, including saltmarshes, mudflats, maerl beds, seagrass meadows and areas where marine wildlife are resting, breeding, nesting or feeding.
7. Report wildlife crime
If you see someone intentionally or recklessly harassing, injuring, disturbing, taking or killing an animal or damaging their habitat, you should report it. Call 101 to report an incident that has already happened, or 999 for a crime in action. Certain actions can incur fines of up to £5,000.
Our coastline and marine life are under serious pressures from a variety of threats, including climate change, disease, habitat loss, reduced food availability (usually due to overfishing), pollution and human activity, all of which already negatively impact marine wildlife. Repeated disturbances can combine with these other pressures, causing reduced fitness and increasing mortality rates.
Image by Simon Palmer
Is this effective guidance?
This code was developed in collaboration with a number of wildlife organisations, including the RSPB, Shark Trust, Whale and Dolphin Conservation and the Cornwall Seal Group Research Trust. It is not a law or regulation but does help to raise awareness of the impacts you can have on coastal and marine wildlife, while also offering practical guidance to minimise or even eliminate these impacts. While this is unlikely to prevent those with negative intentions, it does provide a great basis to help educate the vast majority of the public on how to be responsibe around wildlife. With reported disturbance incidents more than tripling in Cornwall alone since 2014, and with the ongoing work to establish the King Charles III England Coast Path (a 2,700 mile waymarked coastal path), this new code is a welcome step towards reducing and preventing incidents.
A whale shark was observed feeding at the seabed for the first time. This species usually filter-feeds on plankton at the sea surface; this unusual behaviour was filmed by an ecotourism guide. A new study, published in May 2023, proposes that whale sharks actively feed on benthic prey, either in deep water environments or where the abundance of this prey exceeds that of planktonic food sources.
Whale shark filter feeding at the surface. Image by Daniel Gillaspia via Flickr
Irish geneticists have discovered how some species may have been able to survive a mass extinction. Scientists at Trinity College Dublin unearthed a ‘dramatic evolutionary event’ in sturgeon and paddlefish populations. The species’ entire genetic makeup was ‘copied and pasted’ so that it had twice the genetic material it had before, providing more opportunities for mutations and evolution to occur. By strengthening their genetic mix, they might have been able to facilitate their re-establishment after a major mass extinction 200 million years ago.
Pollution
The River Wye has had its health status downgraded after a wildlife review by Natural England. The status changed from “unfavourable-improving” to “unfavourable-declining”, meaning that the river’s condition is worsening. The assessment showed that the river has experienced declines in certain key species, including Atlantic salmon and white-clawed crayfish. Previous studies linked this decline in condition to intensive chicken farming on the catchment.
The population of white-bellied heron in Bhutan continues to grow. Across 14 habitats, 27 individuals were recorded this year, four more than last year. This critically endangered species has fewer than 60 individuals worldwide and is found only in the Himalayan region in Bhutan, north-east India and Myanmar. As this is a top predator, its presence indicates a healthy ecosystem. Threats to this species and its habitat include fishing, local activities, natural resource extraction, development, ecotourism and timber and firewood.
The oak processionary moth, an invasive species, is thought to be spreading across south-east England. The government has introduced new legislation which aims to control the movement of oak trees in south-east England due to this rise in moth numbers. The toxic moths feed on the leaves of oak trees, affecting the health of oak trees by weakening them, making them more vulnerable to pests, diseases and drought.
Farmers are warning that England’s hedgerows are under threat from funding cuts. The transition to post-Brexit farming payments may mean that schemes to protect hedgerows could be lost. These habitats are vital for a number of species, including mammals, birds and pollinating insects, as they provide both food and shelter. The EU paid farmers under its subsidy scheme to keep hedgerows on their land, but they had to meet certain standards such as not ploughing to the base of hedgerows; not using fertilisers or pesticides within two metres of them; and not cutting hedgerows between 1st March and 31st August without good cause due to nesting birds. The government is ending these requirements by the end of the year.
In Spring 2023 NHBS have, for the third year running, participated in Plantlife’s #NoMowMay initiative. We’ve requested that the grass areas around our premises are spared from mowing for the duration of the month of May, allowing a host of flowering plants to expand and in some cases complete their flowering cycle.
May is a vital time in the lives of many flowering plants, as they grow up in a rush after the winter months of dormancy in the soil to meet the pollinators upon whom they rely for regeneration. In our gardens and municipal green spaces, we tend to keep lawns tamed and green by regularly mowing and clearing out flowering plants in favour of a neat and uniformed low-cut grass. This has benefits for us in some of our recreation activities, but it wreaks havoc on our ecosystems. If pollinating invertebrate species can’t find the flowers they rely on, they disappear from an area, which also has a knock-on effect on the species that need the invertebrates as a food source, and the flowering plants that need them to spread their pollen and reproduce. Over time, this fragments habitats and drives down both biodiversity and abundance of species.
So, by committing to #NoMowMay, no matter what size of a green space you have, you offer real potential for reconnection between plants and their pollinators, which in turn supports a greater number of birds, bats and other mammals large and small, including us!
This year, after quite a wet spell of late winter weeks with cold winds blowing through, May arrived with a warm embrace of pleasant sunshine that supported a quick growth of many flowering plants. Early flowers here were the Cut-leaved Crane’s-bill(Geranium dissectum), Common Vetch (Vicia sativa) and Cuckooflower(Cardamine pratensis), that spread rigorously through the grass along with a matt of Creeping Buttercup (Ranunculus repens). As soon as mowing ceased Daisies (Bellis perennis) and Germander Speedwell (Veronica chamaedrys) flowered throughout, alongside Dandelions(Taraxacum officinalis), Spotted Medick (Medicago arabica) and Herb-robert (Geranium robertianum). Many of the species present this year are listed in our species tally from last year (See our No Mow May 2022 blog here for a more comprehensive plant list).
Cut-leaved Crane’s-bill
Cuckooflower
Common Vetch
This year, it’s been a real wonder to witness some more of the invertebrate life across our May meadow. In the still warm sunshine, we’ve seen a fair few bumble, honey and solitary bee species dashing by, some impressive wasps and flies (including scorpion flies) and, owing to our riverside location, we’ve started seeing Mayflies and Damselflies in the last week or so. There’s been some fleeting glimpses of spiders sunning themselves on the walls and walkways and a beautiful Nursery Web spider (Pisaura mirabilis) touring the vegetation.
Mayfly
Nursery Web Spider
Along the edges of the plot here where trees and shrubs tower up, surrounded by Cleavers (Galium aparine), Brambles and Docks, we’ve found a few small green weevils (that we’re struggling to ID beyond the subfamily of Entiminae) and Red-and-black Froghoppers(Cercopis vulnerate) – plus, a short distance away we were delighted to encounter an incredible Horned Treehopper(Centrotus cornutus)! There’s also been a regular meeting of Iris Weevils (Mononychus punctumalbum) on the blue marking flags we had put out to highlight points of particular interest.
Red-and-black Froghopper
Iris Weevils
Green Weevil species
Horned Treehopper
We’ve had regular visits from Orange-tip butterflies(Anthocharis cardamines),Holly Blues’(Cauchas rufimitrella), Peacock (Aglais io) and Green-veined White Butterflies (Pieris napi) throughout the month, and, when the afternoon sun has been particularly strong, a handful of beautiful Meadow Long-horn moths (Cauchas rufimitrella) have gathered in a shimmering dance around the blooming Cuckooflowers. We’ve also been treated to some short appearances of a Burnet Companion moth(Euclidia glyphica) as they quickly nipped between the vetch flowers.
Orange-tip Butterfly
Holly Blue
Meadow Long-horn Moth
We’re hoping that we can leave the plants a little longer into June again this year, as there’s still some remarkable species yet to flower, and it’s such a delight to see so many invertebrates thriving alongside the plants in this wayside patch. Suffice it to say if this place had kept to the same mowing schedule as some other local verges, there’d be little or no opportunity for the plants or their pollinators to proliferate or regenerate, and that’s without even considering the benefits to us humans of allowing and encouraging this dynamic ecosystem. Small contribution as it may be in the grand scheme of things.
We hope you’ve been inspired to join in with Plantlife’s #NoMowMay this year too, or perhaps through June, and next summer too! We sell a wide range of handy books for identifying wild plants and animals, and there’s a growing number of books that are helpful resources for gardening for wildlife!
Offshore wind farms (OWFs) are areas with multiple turbines, often located in relatively shallow water just off the coast. The energy produced by the force of the wind is clean and renewable but, often, such climate change solutions come with trade-offs. Research around these areas has shown that they can impact surrounding habitats and ecosystems both positively and negatively.
Climate change prevention vs biodiversity protection
Policies and strategies for fighting climate change can sometimes ignore or under-emphasise biodiversity protection. For example, a pledge made at COP26 in 2021 to halt net deforestation by 2030 does not actually prevent the cutting down of forests, but instead requires that forest loss should be replaced ‘sustainably’. However, replacing primary forests with new growth has negative consequences for biodiversity, as ancient woodlands are highly complex ecosystems. New growth is less able to support the same level of biodiversity and it would take decades for an area to develop back into a climax community. Therefore, while this pledge may help to fight climate change by potentially stabilising or even increasing global forest cover, it would allow for the continued negative ecological impacts of deforestation.
Wind farms face similar dilemmas. They produce clean and renewable energy, without the negative impacts on the climate of traditional energy sources such as coal and gas, but they have been shown to impact the surrounding environment.
Negative impacts of offshore wind farms
Two phases can potentially cause disturbance to wildlife: the construction phase and the operation phase. Some species may be impacted during the construction phase but are able to recover and are unaffected by the general noise of the operation phase, but some are impacted by both, thus creating long-term changes in the ecosystem. Additionally, wind turbines do not have an infinite lifespan, and may need replacing as frequently as every 20-25 years. While this may not involve a full replacement, it would involve some level of construction and therefore disturbance.
The impacts of wind farms can be through collisions, displacement, noise, destruction of habitat, change in hydrology and more. One new report, however, found that seabirds off the UK coast are better at avoiding wind turbine blades than previously thought. Researchers monitored how birds behaved in Aberdeen Bay for two years using radar and cameras. The results showed the birds adapted to the rotor blades from approximately 120 meters, becoming increasingly precisely adapted the closer they came to the rotors. During the two-year study, there wasn’t a single collision between the birds and the rotor blades. However, collisions are not the only way wind farms can affect wildlife.
A recent study has found that populations of red-throated divers decreased by more than 90% in areas where OWFs were built. The data, gathered by German scientists, looked at population numbers in the North Sea before and after five OWFs were built and found that numbers were up to 94% lower within half a mile of the turbines after they were installed. One farm in particular showed a 99% decline in population numbers. The impact is also more widespread, with an average decline of almost half of bird numbers up to six miles away from the turbines. The cause behind this decline is thought to be due to the effect turbines have on their hunting techniques. Their formerly large foraging area has been split into smaller units by these offshore farms, restricting their movements when foraging for highly mobile prey.
Red-throated divers are not the only species that are being affected by OWFs. A study assessing the vulnerability of marine populations to offshore wind farms in 2013 identified a number of other seabirds that are potentially at risk, including gulls, white-tailed eagles, northern gannets, skuas and common scoters. More recent studies highlight the impacts on long-tailed ducks, common eiders, razorbills and common guillemots, such as general avoidance, changes in migration patterns and lower abundance around wind farms. The increased energy cost of avoiding wind farms could potentially impact survival and reproductive success, depending on the length and frequency of the flight, as well as the characteristics of the species.
While birds are often the focus of studies into the environmental impacts of OWFs, numerous studies have found that marine mammals such as porpoises, whales and dolphins, as well as fish and marine invertebrates, are affected. Many types of offshore wind turbines need foundations that are placed deep into the seabed. By drilling the sea floor, any benthic marine habitats in the surrounding area could be destroyed, while the displaced sediments can hang in the water column impacting filter feeders and photosynthetic organisms. Once the sediment settles, it can also smother many bottom-dwelling organisms, preventing them from feeding.
Furthermore, the noise pollution from the construction can threaten marine organisms, as it interferes with the communication of species such as porpoises, dolphins and whales. These species rely heavily on their hearing for orientation, hunting and communication between individuals. Prolonged exposure to loud noise, which even the normal operation of turbines can produce, leads to hearing loss and stress, increasing their vulnerability to diseases, while also combining cumulatively with the impacts of other pressures such as pollution and reduce food availability. Fish are also affected by this prolonged exposure.
Stress from these pressures leads to behavioural changes, and affects general movement, feeding patterns and migration. It can also impact fecundity and mortality rates. Due to this, as well as changes in the physical or chemical characteristics of the habitats surrounding wind farms, ecosystem structures may change because of alterations in species composition or abundance. This can impact the functions of the ecosystem, having widespread impacts on the surrounding environment, as well as the industries that rely upon it, such as fisheries.
Wind farm pieces from Cammell Laird by Andrew via Flickr
Positive impacts of offshore wind farms
Wind turbines and their foundations, though destructive to construct, provide structures that become artificial reefs for corals and other sessile aquatic organisms such as sponges, seaweeds, mussels and anemones. This increase in the distribution and abundance of certain species, such as invertebrates, can attract other species that are higher in the trophic level, such as fish.
Certain farms also ban fishing, which can reduce pressures within the boundaries of the farm. This, along with the ecosystem supported by the artificial reef system, can provide a haven for fish that are usually heavily overfished. This increase in food availability can, therefore, have a positive impact on many species in higher trophic levels, such as seabirds, but the impact varies from species to species and often from farm to farm.
Advantages of onshore vs offshore wind power
Onshore wind farms are cost-effective, as they’re one of the least expensive forms of renewable energy and are far less expensive than offshore wind power. They are also easier to construct and maintain, unlike offshore farms, where higher wind speeds, strong seas and other accessibility issues can make maintaining these farms more challenging. However, offshore wind farms are more efficient, as higher, more consistent wind speeds mean that fewer turbines are needed to produce the same amount as onshore farms. Additionally, there is more space to construct farms offshore than onshore, with a reduced effect on local people.
What are the solutions?
As the world moves towards carbon net zero in an effort to fight climate change, wind power is going to be more heavily relied upon, meaning the construction of more wind farms. With the construction of these structures in the ocean, there will always be some negative impacts, but there are things that can be done to mitigate some of these. A balance needs to be found between efforts to meet net zero and protecting our environment.
Continuing to monitor and assess the impacts of existing wind farms can inform the ecological strategies of future builds. By improving our understanding of how these farms impact the environment and ecosystem, future projects can be adapted to reduce these impacts. This research needs to be properly funded and shared globally, with stringent legislation that is updated in response to findings. These studies should be rigorous and consistent, avoiding underestimations that could allow the continued threat to the environment but steering clear of overestimations which could hinder further development of clean energy through wind farms.
Greater Gabbard offshore wind farm by Department of Energy and Climate Change via Flickr
Using data from fisheries can indicate where research is needed, as an increase or decrease in catch around wind farms suggests ecological changes. However, this would mean only the impacts that affect commercial fish would be investigated and impacts on other, non-commercial species may be overlooked. Therefore, other monitoring methods are also needed, which will involve funding from both private and government sources.
In the UK, Natural England has called for new OWFs to leave nature in a better state than before its construction, avoiding any irreparable damage to the environment. The approach, published in June 2021, set out how these farms can play a vital role, not only in tackling climate change, but also in nature recovery. Similar to Biodiversity Net Gain, which requires new developments on land in England to ensure that habitat is 10% better after building than before, Natural England is seeking to ensure that new OWF projects ‘build in’ plans that will enhance nature and protect the environment from the pressures mentioned above. The approach outlines the objectives and actions that Natural England will focus on, in partnership with others such as Defra’s Offshore Wind Enabling Actions Programme. These include:
Aiming for each development to leave nature in a better state.
The advanced introduction of strategic, to-scale and evidence-based measures that will compensate for environmental harm.
Monitoring to inform stronger, evidence-based impact assessments, promoting the use of environmentally sensitive design, construction and operation.
The development of an environmental sensitivities map that is easy-to-use, so that planners and developers can make sure OWFs and their cables avoid causing irreparable damage to the environment.
Other mitigation options include the arrangement of turbine clusters, as certain patterns can minimise barriers to movements, such as creating corridors within the farms to allow birds to pass through rather than having to extend their flight to go around extensive concentrations of turbines. Advances in technology have also given rise to options such as floating wind farms, which would reduce the impact on the sea bed, as well as potentially reducing the construction phase; and multi-purpose interconnectors, which would allow multiple offshore farms to be connected to the shore, rather than individual wind farms, which would reduce the impact of cable laying.
Other renewable energy options
Other renewable energy options include hydropower, solar power, biomass and geothermal energy. Solar power is an important source of renewable energy and can be placed on areas such as roofs, to reduce the space needed, but there are environmental implications for large-scale solar energy production, including aluminium demand. Hydropower, such as wave and tidal power, has future potential but is not yet widely employed commercially.
These could also have ecological impacts, however. For example, large-scale wave energy converters could cause changes in water velocities, which may impact sediment transport, coastal erosion and the increase of sediment deposition. Additionally, barriers such as dams radically change the typography and environment of rivers, with widespread ecological implications. Burning biomass, often from agricultural waste, releases carbon dioxide. While the plants that are grown as the source of the biomass can capture almost the same amount of CO2, the burning smoke can also contain harmful pollutants such as carbon monoxide, as well as producing ash which can contain high concentrations of various heavy metals such as lead and cadmium, which would need proper disposal. Geothermal energy produces both water and air pollution, such as arsenic, mercury, nickel, methane, ammonia and carbon dioxide. It also produces hazardous waste that would require safe disposal and requires a large amount of water for purposes such as cooling.
It is clear that all renewable energy comes with some negative environmental implications. However, the pollution and greenhouse gases produced are far less than non-renewable energy sources such as fossil fuels. Fossil fuels do substantially more harm than renewable energies, therefore the world must continue to expand and improve its renewable energy endeavours, while focusing on reducing and mitigating their negative environmental impacts.
Summary
Climate change strategies often overlook the protection of biodiversity, with wind farms producing clean and renewable energy but having serious impacts on the environment and ecosystems surrounding them.
Both the construction phase and the operation phase of offshore wind farms (OWF) cause disturbances, such as population declines, changes in general movement, feeding patterns, migration, fecundity and mortality rates.
OWFs also have positive impacts, creating structures that form artificial reefs, and increasing the abundance of certain species such as corals, mussels and anemones, which then attract species in higher trophic levels. Certain farms also ban fishing, creating havens for commercially important fish.
A balance needs to be found between the effort to meet net zero through creating more clean, renewable energy and the protection of our environment.
Continuing to monitor and assess the impacts of existing windfarms, plus stringent legislation, can help improve the ecological strategies of future farms.
Natural England has developed an approach that would require new OWFs to leave nature in a better state than it was before construction, avoiding any irreparable damage to the environment. The objectives of this approach include the advanced introduction of strategic and evidence-based measures that will compensate for environmental harm and the development of an easy-to-use environmental sensitivities map, which will help planners and developers make sure OWFs avoid causing irreparable environmental damage.
All renewable energy sources come with some negative environmental implications but fossil fuels are far worse. Therefore it is important for renewable energies to expand, with a focus on reducing environmental impacts.
15-million-year-old giant wombat skeletons have been uncovered in Australia. A new paper analysed the various features of these fossil bones to reveal the overall size and shape of the animal, its lifestyle and surrounding environment, as well as what kind of movements the animal was capable of. The research showed that this species, known as Nimbadon, spent some of its time suspended from tree branches like a sloth, grew in periodic spurts and had opposable thumbs. They are currently studying the enamel microstructure of Nimbadon’s teeth to determine its diet.
A program to plant 20 million trees in Australia prioritised cost-saving over gains for the environment, according to new research. Beginning in 2014, the program was aiming to improve native vegetation, support a richness of plant and animal species and reduce greenhouse gases. However, funding decisions were largely driven by ‘value for money’ considerations, with projects where the cost per tree was less than A$5 far more likely to be funded than projects where a tree cost more than A$10, undermining the benefits for both threatened species and the climate.
Extinction risk
A lack of large prey in Nepal may be the reason behind the rise in human-tiger conflicts. The wild tiger population has nearly tripled in the past 12 years but this has led to an increase in conflicts, with tigers in Bardiya National Park frequently preying on livestock in nearby settlements. Tigers in Parsa National Park, however, have access to large prey such as wild water buffalo and guar wild cattle, and researchers found no traces of livestock in their diet.
Trapping is holding back the speed of bird recovery in the Harapan Forest, Sumatra, Indonesia. A new study has found that the decade of protection and natural regeneration has helped bird populations increase in this forest, but wild trapping is preventing the full results of reforestation efforts. 45.1% of 122 bird species showed a notable population increase from 2009 to 2018, but 16.2% faced intensified trapping pressure.
Climate change
For the first time, wind is now the main source of UK electricity. In the first three months of 2023, wind turbines generated more electricity than gas, with a third of the country’s electricity coming from wind farms. There was also a record period for solar energy generation. While there is still a long way to go, this is a step in the right direction to meet the UK’s aim for all its electricity to have net zero emissions.
Frogs in Puerto Rico are croaking at a higher pitch due to global heating. The coqui frog appears to be decreasing in size due to the warmer temperatures, which is causing their croaks to become more high-pitched. Researchers are warning that if the trends continue, the temperature could become too high for certain amphibians to survive.
A new report claims that the UK could unlock £70bn a year in renewable energy. Generating more green electricity to meet the UK’s climate targets could create an additional 279,000 jobs, supporting a total of 654,000 jobs. If Britain’s clean electricity generation increased 50% above its current projections for 2050, it could be capable of exporting £17bn of green electricity to Europe annually. This could attract trillions in global private investment, doubling the £35bn a year economic benefit forecasted for its current path. To do this, government policymakers must remove barriers hampering the UK’s green energy ambitions, such as making sure the UK has enough batteries to store its renewable electricity and retrofitting commercial buildings to improve the UK’s energy efficiency.
Conservation
A Cornish farm is launching a project to triple the UK’s temperate rainforest. The Thousand Year Trust is being launched this year by a veteran who is now transforming his 120-hectare hill farm on Bodmin Moor into the largest rainforest restoration project in England and Wales. Working with local farmers, landowners and other charities to identify land suitable for this habitat, the charity has the ultimate aim of tripling Britain’s surviving rainforest to 1m acres over the next 30 years.
Seabird conservation is mostly working, according to a comprehensive new data set. Researchers compiled a data set of 851 seabird restoration events over the last 70 years, spanning 551 locations and targeting 138 seabird species. Forty-nine events used translocation, while 802 used social attraction, such as decoys, bird sound recordings and other devices aiming to lure birds to a new place. While the result of each project depended largely on the species and circumstances, most were successfully completed.
Policy
An unprecedented €2.2bn drought response plan has been approved in Spain. The package of measures includes €1.4bn in funds to tackle the drought and increase water availability, and €784m to help farmers maintain production and avoid food shortages. The €1.4bn will be spent on building new infrastructure, such as desalination plants, doubling the proportion of water that is reused in urban areas from 10% to 20% by 2027, and subsidising those whose irrigation water supplies would be reduced.
In the hotly anticipated The Book of Wilding, Isabella Tree and Charlie Burrell share some of the many lessons they have learned from their pioneering rewilding project at the Knepp Estate in Sussex. Explaining in detail why rewilding is important and how we can all play a part, this inspiring book is packed with practical solutions for rewilding on a range of scales, from farms and estates to allotments and gardens.
Charlie and Isabella. Image by Anthony Cullen.
In our recent conversation with Isabella, she talks about some of the things she has learned through her years managing Knepp alongside husband and co-author Charlie Burrell. We also discuss ways of coping with eco-anxiety and how we can all make a difference to the future of the planet, even if we aren’t large landowners or farmers.
The story of Knepp Estate and its transformation from a struggling farm to a prosperous and famous rewilding project is incredibly inspiring. Looking back over your journey and knowing all the things that you know now, what would you say to the younger you who was just beginning on this path?
I would tell her that this is going to be the most exciting adventure of her life and rewards will come in spades. And not to worry about the occasional Exocet missile from disgruntled neighbours or a Twitter storm. The results will speak for themselves. It may feel like you’re swimming against the current, but soon the tide will turn. There are hundreds, if not thousands, of people out there in the UK who will soon be inspired to make the leap into rewilding too.
In relation to the first question, with the benefit of hindsight, are there things that you would have done differently, or were the challenges and potential mistakes a necessary part of the process?
The wonderful thing about rewilding is that there isn’t a detailed management plan, no specific goals or targets. Initially, you may need to put in some drivers (such as free-roaming grazing animals and restoring dynamic natural water systems) to kick-start natural processes again – especially if your land, like ours, has been ploughed and soaked in chemicals for decades. But then you’re stepping back and letting nature take over. That’s a huge relief in terms of lifting the burden of responsibility from your shoulders. Nature itself takes over the driving seat. So, in a way, there are no mistakes. It’s all about nature revealing itself, evolving in the way it wants to, anew. Often these outcomes are completely unpredictable.
The only management we do at Knepp is controlling the number of animals – neither too few, or too many – so their influence maximises the potential for diversity and abundance of life. And that is simply by observation. So, if we go too far in one direction, we simply – at some point – change the strategy. But we try never to respond with knee-jerk reactions. It’s a totally new way of thinking, very liberating.
The Book of Wilding, while being a hugely practical guide to rewilding on all scales, is also a beacon of hope. In an age when eco-anxiety can lead even the most optimistic and determined of us to feel despondent, do you feel broadly hopeful that humans can do the necessary work to restore balance to our planet?
Yes, we absolutely can. If we work together, and realise our potential to bring about huge, transformative change. But you’re right to identify how the enormity of the environmental crisis we’re facing can make most of us feel despondent and impotent. The only cure for eco-anxiety, that I’ve been able to find, is to actually do something positive oneself. Even if it’s just establishing a window box and filling it with plants for pollinating insects – that small gesture can be hugely galvanising. It is part of a much bigger picture, contributing to restoring the web of nature – our life-support system – across the planet. Seeing butterflies and bees and night-flying moths arriving, on flowers that you’ve planted yourself, is balm for the soul. It gives you the kind of encouragement that allows you to lift your head above the parapet and think ‘what else can I do?’
The case you make for rewilding, both through the book and your decades of work at Knepp, are extremely compelling. What do you think are the main barriers to a more widespread adoption of this approach? Do you think that cultural and traditional values are more of an issue than the practical concerns of funding and knowledge transfer/availability?
Yes, in a way, I do. We’re seeing new streams of funding for rewilding and nature restoration all the time. Governments are at last making the move to pay for ecosystem services – improvements to the land that bring benefits to the public like clean water, clean air, soil restoration, healthy food, carbon storage, and flood protection, as well as wild spaces for human health and wellbeing. And the private sector (businesses concerned about their image, and now legally required to account for their carbon footprint and environmental impact) is beginning to make colossal investments in nature restoration – this is likely to be the most positive influence of all. So, the financial incentives are happening. But a major drag on action is down to public perception, and aesthetics.
We’ve grown up to believe the countryside should look a certain way, that rivers should be canalised, hedges clipped within an inch of their life, gardens should be tidy, lawns manicured. Insects are pests. Barren, overgrazed hillsides are natural. Apex predators are dangerous. Often, the biggest obstacle of all is changing our own mindset, questioning received wisdom, really asking ourselves ‘can I consider this landscape to be beautiful if I know it’s not functioning, if it’s actually harmful to wildlife and to ourselves?’ Ultimately, it’s about letting go of cultural values we may have accepted unquestioningly, understanding what makes an ecosystem function, to stop being a control-freak, allow ourselves to get messy, to let go – to rewild ourselves.
Do you think that there are some misconceptions as to what constitutes rewilding? Particularly on a smaller scale where a more hands-on approach might be required to mimic the natural processes of herbivores, for instance – to the untrained eye this might seem more like conventional conservation management than rewilding.
Yes, indeed, small-scale rewilding (where there isn’t the space to use free-roaming animals, and there may not be dynamic natural water systems) has a lot in common with conventional conservation, and often the managers of ancient woodland or nature reserves may not be aware that they’re also acting like rewilders, being proxies, themselves, and mimicking the disturbance of wild herbivores – by doing things such as coppicing and pollarding, or putting woody debris blockages into rivers and streams (like a beaver) to create different flows and depths of water.
Where I think the rewilding approach brings something different, and more dynamic, is in varying the timing of interventions – so you might randomise when you cut a wildflower meadow, for example, and the intensity of cutting, so as to mimic the different factors that might affect herbivore grazing pressure in the wild. This will favour different suites of plants, maximising plant and insect diversity. Or try the passive-active-passive approach – doing nothing for a while, then going in with interventions, then leaving the area alone again for maybe several years. Basically, mixing it up, rather than applying steady, even, predictable management. Get rid of the level playing field!
I liked that you included a chapter on rewilding gardens, as this feels like an achievable project that any open-minded gardener could attempt. If done well, rewilding a small garden will have obvious benefits for the local plants and animals but, if done collectively, do you think it can also have a wider impact?
That’s one of the big themes of rewilding – connectivity. A friend of mine has created wonderful habitat in his back garden for insects, frogs, toads and grass snakes. But he’s also persuaded his neighbours to either replace their fences with hedges (great for nesting birds, especially if using thorny species such as blackthorn and hawthorn) or cut holes in the fence for hedgehogs. They’ve discussed the different habitats they can collectively provide for nature. One garden has a beetle bank and a pile of dead wood for stag beetles, another has a pond; some mow their lawns monthly, others only at the end of the summer; some have put up window boxes or planted ivy to climb their walls; others leave a pile of leaves or nettles and brambles in a discreet corner. Between them, they’ve created a whole string of different habitats that are connected, so they’ve become a wildlife corridor that also provides for species that have different demands at different stages in their life cycle. The next step is to connect with a nearby park by persuading the council to manage the roadside verges like wildflower meadows, and by planting an avenue of trees in the street. Their gardens already back onto a railway embankment, so ultimately they could be instrumental in creating a flow of life between open countryside and inner city.
Finally – what steps would you recommend to the ‘average’ citizen who isn’t a large landowner or farmer and wants to go beyond simply rewilding their own small garden?
There are lots of groups and NGOs working for nature restoration in imaginative and exciting ways and many of them welcome volunteers, such as the Vincent Wildlife Trust which focuses on recovery programmes for bats and mustelids. Citizen Zoo is a community-focused rewilding organisation involved in reintroduction programmes such as water voles, beavers and large marsh grasshoppers. Derek Gow Consultancy runs courses on practical rewilding in Devon (rewildingcoombeshead.co.uk) as do we, at Knepp in West Sussex (www.knepp.co.uk). Caring for God’s Acre is a conservation charity which advises on restoring nature in graveyards and cemeteries. Become a member of your local Wildlife Trust (London has one, too). You could petition your local council to stop mowing verges, leave thorny scrub in unmanaged areas, rewild urban parks, plant more street trees and encourage green walls and roofs. And, perhaps most important of all, campaign to make your village, town or city pesticide-free.
The Book of Wilding by Isabella Tree and Charlie Burrell is published by Bloomsbury. Hardback RRP £35.00.
The Book of Wilding, while being a hugely practical guide to rewilding on all scales, is also a beacon of hope. In an age when eco-anxiety can lead even the most optimistic and determined of us to feel despondent, do you feel broadly hopeful that humans can do the necessary work to restore balance to our planet? 
Do you think that there are some misconceptions as to what constitutes rewilding? Particularly on a smaller scale where a more hands-on approach might be required to mimic the natural processes of herbivores, for instance – to the untrained eye this might seem more like conventional conservation management than rewilding. 
Finally – what steps would you recommend to the ‘average’ citizen who isn’t a large landowner or farmer and wants to go beyond simply rewilding their own small garden?