Climate Challenges: 6. Agricultural Intensification

In the lead up to the 26th UN Climate Change Conference of the Parties (COP26) in November of last year, as well as the months that have followed, we have been writing a series of articles looking at some of the toughest global climate crisis challenges that we are currently facing. This post looks at the intensification of agricultural practices and how this can both be exacerbated by and contribute to climate change.

Farmer applying pre-emergence sprays. Chafer Machinery via Flickr
What is agricultural intensification?

Our global population is increasing year on year and is predicted to hit 10 billion by 2057. Agricultural production has to keep pace with the resource demands of this growing population. There are two main ways this can occur: an increase in the amount of land used for agricultural purposes or an increase in the yield from land already used through improvements or increased use of resources such as technology, fertilisers, labour, pesticides or scientific plant knowledge.

What are the impacts of land-use change?

Habitat destruction is considered one of the main causes of animal extinctions worldwide, and much of this destruction is due to clearing land for agriculture. Intensively managed agricultural land is far less valuable for the environment than natural habitats such as wetlands and forests. Intensively managed farmlands support less diverse and abundant species, sequester less carbon dioxide and suffer from increased water loss and soil erosion. Therefore, the increase in agricultural areas can contribute to climate change and worsen our ability to mitigate its effects.

Agricultural expansion and land clearing are pushed right up to Bwindi Impenetrable National Park boundaries in Uganda. USAID Biodiversity and Forestry via Flickr
What is the impact of increasing yields?

Intensification of agricultural management practices to increase yield includes an increase in the use of chemicals such as fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides, all of which can negatively impact wildlife, soil and nearby water quality. The artificial introduction of nutrients can be detrimental to the environment, particularly if it reaches waterways through run-off, as it can lead to algae blooms that can deplete aquatic oxygen levels.

Herbicides and pesticides have a direct impact on both target and non-target species, potentially disrupting populations and affecting whole ecosystems. Species can also be impacted through trophic poisoning, as the impacts of these chemicals can be heightened through biomagnification, where toxins build up in the food chain in greater and greater concentrations at each trophic level. This often results in the loss of top consumers which can destabilise ecosystems.

Another way to increase yield is by utilising as much of the existing agricultural land as possible. This, however, reduces the areas of non-crop species, such as trees and hedgerows. These areas represent essential diversity in plant species, helping to support a wide variety of fauna by providing food, shelter and breeding areas. Losing these areas reduces the variety and abundance of species that agricultural land can support. Additionally, crops are often grown in monocultures, a field composed of just a single crop species rather than multiple species, further reducing biodiversity. This increases the susceptibility of fields to disease and pest damage, furthering the need for additional chemical intervention.

Monoculture by Paul Barker Hemings via Flickr
Climate change and agricultural intensification

Agriculture is one of the major sources of greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change. Methane and nitrous oxide, produced from livestock and as an indirect product of fertilisers, are particularly problematic. Increasing production or land area can increase the amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere while reducing the amount of carbon that the land can sequester, enhancing the impact on climate change.

Climate change affects agriculture in return. Changes in precipitation patterns impact crop yields and reduce yield reliability. Higher temperatures, particularly heat waves, can lead to high yield losses, livestock death or sickness, a reduction in workable hours, increases in water supply needs and even damage to equipment. More frequent and higher intensity extreme weather, such as storms, can also impact in a similar way. Therefore, agriculture may not be able to keep up with food demands and would need to further increase its production. This could continue to drive climate change and exacerbate the impacts on agriculture in a cycle of detrimental effects.

What are the other options?

One solution is reducing food loss (by food suppliers) and waste (by retailers, food service providers and consumers). It is thought that, globally, around one-third of all food produced for human consumption is lost or wasted every year. This amounts to about 1.3 billion tonnes of food per year. When this is buried in landfills, it is broken down by microorganisms using anaerobic digestion, producing greenhouse gases (specifically methane and carbon dioxide), which are released into the atmosphere. Some countries, however, have begun to set up food recycling centres to capture these gases to be used as a renewable source of biofuel.

Food waste recycling plant in America. James Loesch via Flickr

By reducing the amount of food wasted, there would be less need to increase agricultural intensification to keep up with the growing population. This can be achieved through several routes, including changing the strict cosmetic standards of many retailers, providing better clarity on food expiration dates and bringing consumers’ attention to how much food they waste each year. For example, through a campaign called ‘Love Food, Hate Waste’, the UK had a 21% reduction in avoidable household waste between 2007 and 2012.

Sustainable farming practices are needed to ensure that global agriculture does not continue to seriously contribute to climate change. Through research into sustainable practices and better techniques, agriculture may be better able to provide enough food for the global population without compromising our environment. By reducing livestock numbers, increasing the efficiency of fertiliser application and better management for manure, the EU reduced agricultural emissions by 24% between 1990 and 2012. Additionally, the UK government is changing how they subsidise farmers. The Sustainable Farming Incentive, piloted by Defra, will reward acts that improve environmental outcomes and reduce carbon emissions. This should hopefully help to increase the sustainability of our agriculture, reducing its impact on climate change.

Another potential solution is regenerative farming, a practice that aims to reverse the impacts of and contribution to climate change by rebuilding soil organic matter and restoring degraded soil biodiversity. This results in an increase in carbon drawdown and an improvement in the water cycle. These farming practices include low- or no-till techniques, increasing plant diversity, introducing cover crops and crop rotations and minimizing physical disturbance. It also includes growing trees and shrubs around crops, using perennial crops that do not need to be replanted annually and creating borders of pollinator habitats. It is hoped that, by restoring the health of soils, farms will be able to increase their yield without negatively impacting the environment, reducing the need for agricultural intensification.

Tilling is used to aerate the soil, prepare seedbeds, suppress weeds, level soil, incorporate fertilisers and turn over cover crops. however, tilling contributes to soil erosion, surface runoff and carbon emissions. Image by United Soybean Board via Flickr

There is a concern, however, that the reduced tilling may lead farmers to rely more heavily on herbicides to remove unwanted plants. There may also be an increased use of fertilisers, to meet the need for nitrogen to convert carbon into microbial organic matter to allow it to remain sequestered in the soil. Questions have also been raised about whether regenerative farming can sequester additional soil carbon effectively, without decreasing yield or requiring more land for farming. For example if cover crops or additional trees and shrubs are added to farmlands without decreasing yield, then carbon sequestration will increase. However, if yield decreases and habitats such as a forest have to be cleared to replace lost production, then carbon sequestration will either remain the same or decrease.

COP26

There were several pledges and agendas launched at COP26 last year, including the Glasgow Leaders’ Declaration on Forests and Land Use, which intends to halt and reverse forest loss by 2030, reducing agricultural expansion into forest areas; and the Agriculture Innovation Mission for Climate (AIM4C), which looks to fund scientific breakthroughs, public and private applied research, and the development, demonstration and deployment of tactical, actionable and innovative products services and knowledge to producers. AIM4C has been criticised, however, for being over-reliant on technological solutions rather than sustainable farming methods. Other announcements including the climate emissions pledges and the Global Methane Pledge will also impact agriculture and its contribution to climate change, as countries look to introduce new regulations and policies to reduce emissions from farms.

The Koronivia Joint Work on Agriculture (KJWA) was also discussed at COP26. Originally established at COP23 in 2017, KJWA aims to bring discussions of agriculture into the UNFCCC and address agricultural issues through the lens of climate change. This process was set to end at cop26, but due to many areas of disagreement, the roadmap of how the Koronivia process will be going forward was included in the debate at the next meeting of the UN climate process, the Bonn Climate Change Conference, in June 2022.

Summary
  • Agriculture must keep up with the resource demands of an increasing global population. This is mainly achieved through increasing agricultural land or increasing yield. Both have negative environmental impacts and can contribute to climate change.
  • Climate change can also negatively impact agriculture, through changing precipitation patterns and extreme weather causing loss of crops and damage to equipment. This, then, requires more agricultural intensification to make up for losses, further contributing to climate change.
  • Solutions include more sustainable agricultural practices and reducing food waste. This reduces the impacts of agriculture on climate change while also reducing the need for more agricultural intensification. Other practices such as regenerative farming may help to improve soil health and carbon sequestration but there are criticisms about its effectiveness.
  • Several pledges launched at COP26 will impact agriculture and its contribution to climate change, including the Glasgow Leaders’ Declaration on Forests and Land Use, the Global Methane Pledge and the Agriculture Innovation Mission for Climate.
Useful resources:

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations’ (FAO) 2013 report: food wastage footprint: impacts on natural resources, illustrating how food is wasted or lost through various stages of the supply chain, highlighting the significant environmental costs.

The 2021 policy paper for the Sustainable Farming Incentive, piloted by the Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (Defra).

This 2015 article by the European Environment Agency on agriculture and climate change.

A 2019 document outlining the National Farming Union of England and Wales’ (NFU) plans for achieving net zero, outlining the current impacts of agriculture and their goals for increasing sustainability.

This 2018 report by IEA bioenergy on anaerobic digestion of food waste for a circular economy, containing food waste data, information on anaerobic digestion systems, and case studies from 11 different countries.

This 2021 article on the key outcomes from COP26 for food, forests, land use and nature by CarbonBrief.

 

Sixty Harvests Left: How to Reach a Nature-Friendly Future

Taking its title from a chilling warning made by the United Nations that the world’s soils could be gone within a lifetime, Sixty Harvests Left demonstrates why food and future harvests matter more than ever and shows us how we can restore our planet for a nature-friendly future.

 

 

Farming and Birds

Ian Newton discusses the changes that have occurred in British agriculture over the past seventy years, and the effects they have had on bird populations. He explains how different farming procedures have affected birds and other wildlife, and how an understanding of the processes involved could help in future conservation.

 

 

Soil Health and Intensification of Agroecosystems

This book examines the climate, environmental, and human effects on agroecosystems and how the existing paradigms must be revised in order to establish sustainable production.

 

 

 

Agricultural Development and Sustainable Intensification

This multidisciplinary book presents state-of-the-art reviews of current SI approaches to promote major food crops, challenges and advances made in technology, and the institutional and policy measures necessary to overcome the constraints faced by smallholder farmers.

 

 

Sustainable Intensification of Agriculture: Greening the World’s Food Economy

This book provides the first widely accessible overview of the concept of sustainable intensification as an innovative approach to agriculture and as a key element in the transition to a green economy.

 

 

Farming with the Environment: Thirty Years of Allerton Project Research

This book examines over 30 years’ worth of research from the Allerton Project, a research and demonstration farm in the UK. Designed to provide guidance, feedback and recommendations to farmers, practitioners and policymakers, the Allerton Project is an exceptionally well-documented case study of lowland agricultural land management which has the purpose of meeting multiple objectives.

Help! I Need an Ecologist: Advice for Homeowners

Most development projects will require an environmental survey. Image by John K Thorne via Flickr.
When and why you might need an ecologist

You’re likely to need to employ an ecologist if you are planning to build a house or add to or alter an existing building. An ecologist will conduct the surveys necessary to assess the possibility of the project impacting any ecosystem or habitat which is home to a protected species.

You will need a survey if the site includes or is adjacent or connected to any of the following, although your architect, planning agent or local planning authority should be able to advise you on this:

  • Woodland, hedgerows or scrub
  • Lakes, ponds, ditches or other bodies of water
  • Meadow, pasture or parkland
  • Heathland
  • Coastal habitat
  • Large rural or suburban gardens
  • Complex tree structures, caves or cave-like spaces
  • Existing derelict buildings, farm buildings or timber buildings, particularly those with access into roof spaces.

The first step in the process is usually a Preliminary Ecological Appraisal. This survey will identify evidence of any protected species or habitat suitable for supporting a protected species. If any are found then this will inform what further protected species surveys or vegetation surveys are required.

It is important to talk to an ecologist as early as possible in the planning process. Image by Rebecca Siegel via Flickr.
What is a Preliminary Ecological Appraisal?

A Preliminary Ecological Appraisal is conducted by an ecologist and usually involves both a desk-based study and a walkover/habitat survey. The desk-based study looks at local records to see if there is current evidence of protected species being present up to 2km away from your site. It will also look to see if the project has the potential to impact any nationally or internationally protected areas. The walkover survey (sometimes referred to as a Phase 1 or Extended Phase 1 survey) will assess what types of habitat are on and around the area as well as the likely presence of any species that are currently protected. It will also look at the value and significance of the habitat.

Once these are complete, the ecologist will compile a report for you that will include this information, as well as an assessment of how the project might impact the surrounding habitat/protected species and any legal issues that might be raised by the development. If no evidence of protected species is found, no further surveys will be required. However, if they find that the site of your project is home to one or more protected species, or that the habitat is likely to support them, then further species-specific surveys will be required.

The report may also make recommendations as to how the local biodiversity can be improved upon during and following the development in line with Biodiversity Net Gain guidelines. This national policy aims to improve biodiversity by creating or enhancing habitats in association with development, so that the environment is left in a better state than it was before the project began.

Further species-specific surveys may include surveying for bats using passive recorders.
What further surveys might be required?

If your Preliminary Ecological Appraisal suggests that there are protected species or their supporting habitat present on or around the development site, then more detailed protected species surveys will be required. Commonly referred to as Phase 2 surveys, these may include botanical surveys, as well as those for bats, great crested newts, hazel dormice, reptiles, water voles, badgers and breeding birds. All of these types of surveys will involve the ecologist(s) conducting at least one, but more likely a series of, site visits. There may be seasonal constraints as to when they can do this.

Once all surveys are complete, the ecologist will compile a report (usually referred to as an Ecological Impact Assessment report or EcIA) which presents their findings as well as the likely impact of the project on protected habitats and species. It will take into account your building and landscape plans including details such as proposed drainage and lighting. The report will also recommend the measures that can be taken to avoid, mitigate or compensate for the impacts, as well as how the local biodiversity could be enhanced.

For sites that might impact a European protected site, such as Special Areas of Conservation (SAC), Special Protection Areas (SPA) and Ramsar sites, an additional survey known as a Habitats Regulation Assessment might be required. This must be submitted by a competent public body (usually the local planning authority), although the work will most likely be carried out by a consultant ecologist. This will assess whether the project is likely to impact the site due to factors such as increased recreational pressure on the area, or significantly increased noise, light and water pollution.

Great crested newt surveys must be conducted during the spring. Image by Chris H via Flickr.
How to find an ecologist

There are numerous ecological consultancies located throughout the UK and Ireland, ranging from small or sole traders up to companies that employ large numbers of ecologists with multiple offices around the country. An internet search will show you if there are any based near to you, although the larger consultancies, in particular, will often undertake work over large geographical areas.

Alternatively, you may wish to search the database on the Chartered Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management (CIEEM) website. CIEEM is the professional body which represents and supports ecologists and environmental managers in the UK, Ireland and parts of Europe. Their members have proven that they are able to work to CIEEM’s professional standards and regularly undertake training to continue their professional development. Using their online members’ directory, you can search for ecologists within certain geographical areas or for specific services. Furthermore, should you have any complaints or concerns over the work conducted, CIEEM has an official complaints procedure that you can use.

When looking to appoint an ecologist, it is worthwhile getting several quotes for comparison. At this point, it is helpful to provide the ecologist with as much information as possible, such as the scope of the project (including detailed plans if these have already been drawn up), the proposed timescale you are hoping to adhere to and any advice that you have already been given (i.e. by an architect or planning agent). Providing them with a map of the area to be developed can also be extremely helpful.

Useful questions to ask at this point are:

  • What is included in the quote and, should additional surveys be required, what are these likely to cost?
  • How long is the work likely to take?
  • Would it be possible to see a draft report and what will be the timescale for this?
  • Are there likely to be other expenses that aren’t covered in the quote, such as mileage or sample analysis?
Important things to consider

• Many protected species surveys have seasonal constraints and can only be conducted at certain times of the year. Because of this, it is important to discuss your requirements with an ecologist as early as possible in the planning process so that you can plan ahead and avoid unnecessary delays.

• Don’t feel like you will be able to ‘get away with’ not conducting the required surveys. Failure to conduct or comply with the appropriate environmental surveys is punishable by law.

• Remember that survey data is not valid indefinitely. Most will be fine up to a duration of 12 months, and some even longer. But any that is more than three years old will definitely need repeating to account for any changes that may have occurred in the interim. If in doubt, it is best to discuss this with your ecologist, planning agent or local planning authority.

Summary

To summarise, when constructing a new building or adding to or modifying an existing one, an ecological survey (or surveys) is usually required to assess its impact on the surrounding habitat and any protected species that may be present. The report(s) generated by these surveys will need to be submitted to your local planning authority as part of the planning process.

To avoid delays with your project it is best to get your ecologist involved as soon as possible so that any necessary surveys can be completed on time – remember that many can only be conducted at certain times of the year.

Book Review: Abundance: Nature in Recovery by Karen Lloyd

Abundance: Nature in Recovery is a collection of essays by award-winning author, Karen Lloyd. Examining abundance and losses in the natural world, Lloyd laments the lack of sight humanity has for the holes we have created. Looking first at artists such as Mary Newcomb, Carry Akroyd, and Daniel Beltrá, the book begins with the struggles of those trying to draw attention to the damaging impacts of human encroachment on the natural world. While many are beginning to understand the harm we are causing, the momentum of our modern society hasn’t allowed us to stop. By recounting a moment when a willow warbler flies into her house, Lloyd compares the fight of individual people against the systems we operate under with the panicked movements of the bird battering against the glass. We, like the bird, have no perception of how to remove ourselves from ‘the world of window frames and glass’ that we inhabit.

Willow warbler by Ron Knight via Flickr

Abundance aims to give a voice to the species and habitats that are often disregarded in the political sphere. Travelling to places such as the Veluwe Forest in Switzerland, the Strathspey woodland in Scotland and the Hungarian Steppe, Lloyd tells the stories of people on the front line of conservation fighting to halt biodiversity loss. The volume of negative environmental news can often be overwhelming, and the author shares her own experience of this feeling in the opening essay. This book is a welcome break, reminding us that conservation success is possible and is taking place right now across Europe.   

Beaver felled tree by Corey Burger via Flickr

Through the exploration of local attitudes to conservation efforts, Lloyd touches on current themes such as rewilding and the return of wolves to the UK. Shifting baselines, where the current generation believes what they are seeing in nature around them is the norm and are unaware of the decline over previous generations, are impacting people’s perspective on the return of previously extinct species. Despite some extinctions being relatively recent, such as the beaver, the general public is unused to living with them. Therefore, they fear the impact these species may have on their daily lives. Worries of damage to livelihood and homes have been exacerbated by misconceptions and scapegoating. Lloyd recounts the concerns people have for the threatened wild salmon should beavers be allowed to remain, despite beavers being obligate herbivores, as well as the attempt to blame beavers for a flash flooding event in Alyth, Scotland. But if we are to allow the natural world to recover from the damage we have inflicted upon it, Lloyd believes that nature needs to be placed centre-stage in everything we do.

Wild salmon by Bureau of Land Management via Flickr

Abundance is an engaging and accessible book, presenting personal accounts of seeing firsthand the impacts of anthropomorphic destruction, riveting natural history stories and shocking data. From the conflict between the need for clean energy sources and the impacts of wind farms on birds to the impact of flood protection on beavers and kingfishers, Lloyd discusses our struggle to find effective solutions to tackle our biodiversity crisis. The engaging and entertaining nature of this book only increases as you read. Comparable to a travel book, each essay is a new adventure in wildlife-rich places. From eighty fragments on the pelican to tales from viewing platforms in the Lake District and the adventure of the 2020 lockdowns, the variety will hold your attention until the very end.

Abundance: Nature in Recovery
By: Karen Lloyd
Hardback | September 2021

 

 

 

 

All prices correct at the time of this article’s publication.

Conservation news highlights from British Wildlife

The conservation news feature has been a fixture of British Wildlife since it first went to print in 1989, and continues to provide a roundup of the most important stories from the world of conservation in Britain and Ireland, covering campaigns, controversies, new initiatives, publications, and policy developments, all accompanied by expert commentary and analysis. 

Here we look back at recent issues of British Wildlife and highlight some of the key stories covered in conservation news, as well as in the main articles, from the past six months. 

February 2022 issue

  • In January, the Environmental Audit Committee issued the output from an inquiry into water quality in rivers. The overarching conclusion was that the ‘chemical cocktail of sewage, slurry and plastic polluting English rivers puts public health and nature at risk’.
  • In 2018, a team from the RSPB discussed in British Wildlife how the Landscapes Review (unpublished at that time) could provide the chance to instal nature at the heart of management of protected landscapes in England. The government responded to the review and opened a consultation; in a recent article David Hampson, Policy Officer at RSPB, analyses the response and highlights opportunities for improvement.
  • On 1st January, Defra issued an updated general licence for bird control in England. This led to further confusion regarding the definition of ‘livestock’ and the timing of when gamebirds are classed as livestock or wildlife.

April 2022 issue

  • The current outbreak of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI), which was first detected in captive birds in October 2022, is the largest and most severe on record and continues to impact captive birds and a number of wild bird species.  
  • There is an abundance of proposals to build new major infrastructure, housing estates, leisure and business parks on open countryside. A report published by the RSPB in February revealed that there were more than 8,000 live planning applications within 500m of an SSSI in July 2021.

May 2022 issue

  • On 13th April the government announced that the benthic habitats of Dogger Bank and three other Marine Protected Areas are to be legally protected from all forms of bottom trawling and demersal seine nets. 
  • An increasing number of raptors, including a White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla in Dorset this spring, have been found dead in recent years, having ingested the rodenticide brodifacoum, an anticoagulant designed to kill rats. In 2020, 23 raptors were found across England, while 25 were recorded in the first half of 2021. In previous years the numbers had been in single figures.
  • The new Natural History GCSE was formally announced on 21st April, 11 years since the idea was first proposed.

June 2022 issue 

  • National Highways, together with the Wildlife Trusts, have launched a new £6 million Network for Nature programme that will create and restore habitats across England.
  • The Levelling Up and Regeneration Bill was introduced in May, and will see the replacement of the current environmental assessment process with Environmental Outcomes Reports. 
  • Somerset Wetlands, England’s second ‘super’ National Nature Reserve (NNR), was declared on 19th May, the 70th anniversary of the creation of NNRs.

British Wildlife is a subscription-only magazine published eight times per year: visit www.britishwildlife.com or email info@britishwildlife.com for more information. Individual subscriptions start from just £40 – you can subscribe online or by phone (01803 467166).

Owl Pellet Dissection

Owl pellets contain all of the indigestible parts of the prey. Image by Gail Hampshire via Flickr.
What is an owl pellet?

Owls feed on a variety of prey; most commonly small mammals but also birds, frogs and other small animals. These prey items are consumed in their entirety and, while the flesh is digested by enzymes, the owl is unable to digest the harder parts of the body, including the teeth, bones, fur or feathers. These indigestible parts are regurgitated as a pellet. Unless they are very fresh, pellets are dry, light and odourless.

In this article we will look at where to find owl pellets and how to tell which species of owl they came from. We will also provide some tips on how to dissect a pellet, how to group the bones into types, and how to identify some of the main species of small mammal that you will find in pellets in the UK.

Where to find owl pellets

Owl pellets can frequently be found wherever owls nest or roost. Good places to search are at the base of tall trees within woodland areas, or in barns or outbuildings where owls are known to roost. Please be aware that you must not disturb breeding or roosting owls in order to collect pellets. Barn Owls in particular are protected in the UK by law under the Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981 and their breeding sites must not be disturbed under any circumstances.

If you don’t have any luck finding your own pellets or don’t have access to places where you might find them, there are several places online where you can order some. Reputable sources in the UK include the Barn Owl Trust and the Suffolk Owl Sanctuary.

What species of owl is my pellet from?

There are five resident species of owl in the UK: Barn Owl, Tawny Owl, Little Owl, Short-Eared Owl and Long-Eared Owl. All of these species produce pellets that are relatively easy to tell apart, particularly if you also know the habitat where they were found. Below is a brief guide to their main characteristics.

• Barn Owl: pellets usually measure 3-7cm in length and are rounded at both ends. They are fairly dark in colour and have a smooth surface.
• Tawny Owl: pellets measure 2-5cm in length and are narrow and bumpy, often having tapered ends. Greyish in colour and sometimes furry looking.
• Little Owl: pellets are fairly small measuring only 1.5-2cm in length. Long and narrow with a soft crumbly texture.
• Short-Eared Owl: pellets are fairly large, measuring 3-6cm in length. Narrow with one rounded end and one tapered end. They are grey and smooth and very lightweight.
• Long-Eared Owl: pellets measure around 2-4cm and are narrow and bumpy. Usually grey in colour.

The most common pellets you will find in the UK are from Barn Owls.

Barn Owl pellet with mounted needle and fine pointed forceps.
How to dissect an owl pellet

There isn’t much equipment you need to dissect an owl pellet, but a few items will make the job a bit easier:

• Mounted needle: this is useful for teasing out fur from around the bones, and moving around delicate specimens. A cocktail stick or needle pushed into a cork will also do the trick.
• Forceps/tweezers: helpful for picking up bones and particularly for removing fur from inside skulls. Forceps with a fine point are best.
• Magnifying glass/hand lens: a small magnifier will allow you to get a closer look at the bones that you find. Jaw bones in particular are very useful for identifying the species and a magnifier will help you get a better look at the arrangement and structure of the teeth.
• White paper/card and glue: it can be helpful to arrange your bones by type onto a sheet of white paper which you can then write on when you have decided what they are and who they belong to. If you would like to make a permanent ID aid you can also glue them onto a piece of card and add permanent labels.

How to identify the contents of an owl pellet

The first thing you will need to do is to tease apart the pellet and separate the bones from the fur and feathers that are holding it all together. To begin with it is easiest to gently break the pellet into several smaller sections then work on each of these in turn. Use your fingers as well as the forceps to carefully tease apart each section, removing any bones and placing them to one side for identification. If your pellet is very hard and dry, try soaking it in water first to soften it.

Once you have all of the bones from your owl pellet, try to group them into types on your sheet of paper. The most common bones you will find are the following:

  • Skulls: for mammals, this consists of the top part of the skull and upper jaw, along with the lower jaw, although this is likely to become detached once you have cleaned all of the fur and other material from inside. For bird species this will include the upper and lower parts of the beak.
  • Back legs: includes the thigh bone (femur) and the lower leg bones (fibula and tibia)
  • Front legs (arms or wings): includes both upper (humerus) and lower (radius and ulna) bones
  • Hip bones
  • Shoulder blades (scapula)
  • Back bones (vertebrae)
  • Ribs

The image below illustrates typical examples of each type of bone. You can also download a useful bone identification sheet from the Suffolk Owl Sanctuary website.

 

The most useful part of the skeleton for identification is the skull and jaws or beak. Bird skulls will obviously be very distinct from those of mammals due to the presence of the beak, so these can immediately be separated out. For the remaining mammal skulls, however, we will need to take a closer look at their lower jaw bones and teeth.

In the UK the most common small mammals you will find in owl pellets are voles, mice and shrews. It is very easy to distinguish which of the lower jaws belong to shrews as they have a continuous line of teeth from the front to the back of the jaw. This is because shrews are insectivores and chew their food, much the same as we do. Voles and mice, however, both gnaw their food, and have a big gap between the long front tooth and the back teeth.

To tell the difference between voles and shrews, we need to take a closer look at their back teeth. Voles have teeth with distinctive grooves down the sides.  In those of a field vole, the grooves run all the way down the side of the tooth. There is also no obvious root. Bank voles have grooves which only run part-way down the side of the tooth and they have two obvious roots, similar to those of a human tooth. The back tooth from a mouse jaw is much smaller when compared to a vole and its structure is much more similar to that of a human tooth. It also has two roots. This sheet from the Barn Owl Trust has a great illustration of the various small mammal lower jaws with size guidelines to help with identification.

Hopefully this article has been a useful introduction to owl pellet dissection and the identification of some of the most common prey species contained within them. If you want more help with identifying all of the bones in your pellet down to species level, the guides listed below are invaluable. Once you have categorised all of the bones you can attach them to a piece of card with permanent labels or arrange them to create a complete skeleton of each species.

Finally, don’t forget to wash your hands well when you have finished your dissection. Any pellet remains can be safely composted.

Further reading

Guide to British Owls and Owl Pellets

This fold-out chart includes colour paintings of the five species of owl permanently resident in the British Isles, shown both perched and at rest. Also included are illustrations and written descriptions of the different pellets that may be found, and a systematic identification key to their contents, including complete skulls, jaws, teeth and other recognisable bones and animal parts.

 

The Analysis of Owl Pellets

This booklet will not only enable you to identify what you find in the pellets of British owls, but also shows how the data may be usefully presented and how to estimate the actual weight of food the birds have eaten.

 

This Week in Biodiversity News – 15th June 2022

Climate change

New Zealand farmers have suggested that the government should impose a levy on agricultural gas emissions to encourage the reduction of methane and nitrous oxide emissions. The government had legislated that farmers must develop an emissions pricing system or agriculture would automatically enter the country’s emissions trading scheme. Grassroots farms have been protesting in recent years against the introduction of environmental regulations, but agriculture currently generates over half of New Zealand’s industrial and household emissions. The sector has been facing significant political pressures over this disproportionate contribution to climate change.

Climate change is impacting whale habitat use in the Gulf of Maine. Warming waters has caused right and humpback whales to shift their use of Cape Cod Bay over the last 20 years. Using aerial surveys conducted from 1998 to 2018, the research team analysed environmental data to study changes in whale habitat use within and across years. The peak use of Cape Cod Bay by these species has sifted almost three weeks later, related to the arrival of spring, which has been changing due to climate change. Right whales may be using Cape Cod Bay for longer periods because climate change has reduced the amount of food available in other Gulf of Maine habitats.

Conservation

For the first time in 30 years, Zoo Atlanta has successfully hatched a Critically Endangered Bog Turtle. This species, Glyptemys muhlenbergii, is the smallest turtle in North America and has only been documented in 10 states in the US. The zoo’s captive breeding program includes one male and two females, which the zoo reports are still young to have reproduced. 

Young bog turtle by Gary Peeples/USFWS via Flickr

Research

A new study has estimated that 44% of Earth’s land is needed to stop the biodiversity crisis. Environmentalists have been lobbying governments to commit to protecting 30% of Earth’s land, but this may not be enough. A computer-generated global map has been created, showing the most efficiently marked amount of the typically needed territory of 35,561 species. This adds up to around 64 million square kilometres, which would require various levels of conservation management, from a strict ban on most human activities to regulations on sustainable development.

Scientists have used food puzzles to study how otters learn from each other. Using a combination of puzzle boxes and unfamiliar foods, the team observed that Asian short-clawed otters watched their companions and copied others when they sampled the unfamiliar food. This study aimed to understand how captive release otters would cope with unfamiliar food in their natural environments once they were released. The results suggested that if one otter was given pre-release training, it could pass some of that information onto other otters.

Asian short-clawed otter by adam w via Flickr

According to a new study, tropical birds may be more colourful than their temperate peers due to the difference in energy availability. Tropical areas have more food year-round and more constant temperatures, potentially allowing tropical birds to evolve more visual signals. Another explication may be diet, as fruits rich in organic pigments, which tend to accumulate in the feathers of birds that consume them, are more abundant in the tropics.

New discoveries

The Critically Endangered adult pine hoverfly (Blera fallax) has been seen in the wild in Britain for the first time in almost a decade. In October 2021 and March 2022, larvae were released at RSPB Abernathy and Forestry and Land Scotland Glenmore, bred as part of the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland’s conservation breeding programme. The pine hoverfly is an important part of forest ecosystems due to its role in both pollination and waste recycling.

Pine hoverfly by Frank Vassen via Flickr

A scientist from Newcastle University has rediscovered an ‘extinct’ giant tortoise on Fernandina, one of the Galápagos Islands. Through genetic testing of a female tortoise found in 2019 and a previous specimen found in 1906, the researchers found that the two were genetically linked and distinct from all other living species of Galápagos giant tortoises. Other expeditions to the island have found evidence of at least two or three more tortoises, which are hoped to be of the same species.

Microplastics

Scientists have found microplastics in freshly fallen Antarctic snow for the first time after collecting samples from 19 sites in Antarctica. An average of 29 particles per litre of melted snow was found, consisting of 13 different types of plastics. The most common, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), was found in 79% of samples. This plastic is primarily used in drinks bottles and clothing. While researchers suggested that the most likely source for these airborne microplastics is local scientific research stations, modelling has shown that their origin could be up to 6,000km away.

Researchers in the Canary Islands have discovered a new form of marine pollution that they have termed plastitar, a mix of tar and microplastics. This formation of two contaminants is an unassessed threat to coastal environments and could be leaking toxic chemicals, potentially proving deadly for organisms such as algae. There is concern that this formation may be blocking and inhibiting the development of the ecosystem.

Policy

No-anchor zone in Studland Bay has been extended to save seagrass habitats. The scheme, set up in December, was introduced to stop anchors dropping and damaging the seagrass meadows. However, there is concern that this voluntary scheme is not being advertised enough to sailors and that there are not enough eco-moorings, an alternative to conventional anchors that do not scour the seagrass. 

In The Field: Browning Spec Ops Elite HP5 & Browning Recon Force Elite HP5

The Browning Spec Ops Elite HP5 and Recon Force Elite HP5 are the 2022 additions to Browning’s highly regarded Spec Ops and Recon Force series, featuring Browning’s Radiant 5 illumination technology. We tested these cameras by setting them up in various habitats across Devon and Sweden over several days and nights in May.

Browning Recon Force Elite HP5

Both trail cameras take 24MP images and record in Full HD (1920 x 1080p), with an adjustable trigger speed of between 0.1 and 0.7 seconds, and a recovery time of 0.5 seconds between images. The footage is recorded in colour during the day, and in black and white during the night or in low-light conditions using the infrared LEDs. As with most high-spec Browning trail cameras, the 5cm colour screen helps when positioning the camera, as you can view the area that will be captured in images and videos, and watch footage from the SD card live in the field without the use of an additional device.

Browning Spec Ops Elite HP5

The display menu is simple to use and the settings are easy to navigate through, enabling you to alter the settings depending on the needs of different target species. The programmable stop/start timer allows you to designate a window of time when the camera will trigger and target the activity periods to match certain species. The adjustable infrared flash can be set to automatically adjust for perfect nighttime photos or be set to Fast Motion (for fast target species), Long Range (open areas or longer focal distance) or Economy (wooded areas or close-up footage) modes in order to provide the best results for the chosen habitat and target species. The smart IR video feature allows daytime footage to continue recording for as long as movement is detected (up to 5 minutes).

Both trail cameras have a camouflaged case to avoid detection in the field, but the no-glow feature of the Browning Spec Ops Elit HP5 offers further security and is less likely to be spotted in public spaces. 

Setting up

The camera is easy to set up with the provided strap but we would recommend securing it with a Python cable lock if you are using either camera in a public area. The cameras were set up in various locations across Devon (videos) and Sweden (images) to record wildlife in a variety of habitats, including an urban garden.

We also performed a capture distance test of 10m, 20m and 30m (please see our video below).

 

What we found

The cameras have very good sensors and performed well at a distance of 30m.  They are able to detect species of different sizes, from small wrens to larger sparrowhawks in flight. The cameras were triggered by moving leaves and branches, but were also able to pick up less noticeable movement such as rabbits in low light conditions (as seen in the videos). We did find that if you have the camera set up on a tree that has lower hanging branches in view, the branches can prevent the camera from triggering until the target is closer to the camera. We also found that placing the camera too low attracted the attention of nosy badgers, but by placing the camera slightly higher off the ground (around knee height is recommended), we managed to get wonderful images of a badger family (see images below).

The footage and images taken during the day and night were all crisp, and we found that the camera’s field of view is higher than some other trail camera models. This meant that even with the camera placed on the floor, there was no burnout due to the flash oversaturating images of the ground during night time captures.  

The trigger speeds for both cameras are very fast and are an improvement from the earlier Spec Ops and Recon Force models from Browning, ensuring that movement in front of the camera was not missed.

 

If you are looking for a good, top-end camera with excellent image quality, we would highly recommend either camera, choosing the no-glow Browning Spec Ops Elite HP5 if extra security is needed when deploying the camera in areas accessible to the public.

If you would like help with tips and troubleshooting with trail cameras, please check out our other blogs here.

The Browning Spec Ops Elite HP5 can be found here and the Recon Force Elite HP5 can be found here. Our full range of trail cameras can be found here.

If you have any questions about our range or would like some advice on the right product for you then please contact us via email at customer.services@nhbs.com or phone on 01803 865913.

 

Testing the Guide: An Identification Guide to Garden Insects of Britain and North-West Europe

Our second article in our Testing the Guide series looks at An Identification Guide to Garden Insects of Britain and North-West Europe, a photographic identification guide to 150 species of garden insects most commonly found in Britain and north-west Europe.

This guide includes an introduction covering how to attract insects to your garden, advice on photographing insects, a description of insect anatomy, the characteristics of the insect orders included in the guide, and the insect lover’s year, describing the best places to look for different species throughout the different months and seasons of the year.

From there, each species is presented, grouped by order, with keenly observed descriptions to help you identify even the smallest creature, as well as one or two photographs labelled with distinguishing features. In each of these sections, there are details of its life cycle from egg to adult, a calendar showing the time of year when the adult can be seen, and star facts that give further proof of insects’ fascinating lives.

Using the guide

Throughout March, April and May, we tested the identification guide by exploring a garden for a few hours during the day and during the night. The garden is small, with a patch of lawn, bare dirt, a hedgerow of mainly ivy (Hedera helix) and holly (Ilex aquifolium), stone gravel, Japanese camellia (Camellia japonica) and rhododendron (Rhododendron sp.) bushes, a field maple tree (Acer campestre), clumps of daffodils (Narcissus pseudonarcissus) and three-cornered garlic (Allium triquetrum), as well as various other flowering and non-flowering plants. This garden also contains a small insect house which was placed in September of last year. Weedkiller was used once in September but no other chemicals have been used since, nor has the lawn been mowed. Therefore, the garden should be able to support a number of insect species. We attempted to search by eye and by using a tapping tray and stick. Compared to just searching by eye, we found that we had little success with tapping as the vast majority of what we found were spiders and we were unable to identify the few insect species we found using this guide.

What we found
Marmalade hoverfly by H. Ketley

Following the guide, we were able to ID this species as a marmalade hoverfly (Episyrphus balteatus), a small, delicate hoverfly with a unique pattern of twin dark bands separated by lighter bands. As this individual doesn’t have ‘holoptic’ eyes – eyes that meet at the top of the head – we believe this is a female.

Speckled wood by H. Ketley

This guide has a large section on butterflies and moths, covering a number of common species you’ll likely see in your garden and local green spaces. This species is a speckled wood (Parage aegeria), identifiable through its dark colouration and the spots on its hindwing, which have a yellow outer ring, a black inner ring and a white central spot. According to the guide, it is a distinctive species, and there are no similar species listed. However, for those unfamiliar with these species, their underwing pattern could potentially be confused with other butterflies such as walls (Lasiommata megera) or graylings (Hipparchia semele).

Dock bug by H. Ketley

This is a dock bug (Coreus marginatus), a small insect from the family Coreidae. According to the guide, they’re common and widespread in Europe, but in Britain, Ireland and Scandinavia, they’re restricted to the southern parts. They’re identifiable through their shape (upturned, pointed pronotum and broad abdomen with a noticeable scutellum), their red-orange antennae with a black final segment, and their pale-brown colouration. There is variation in the wing membrane colour between individuals, and an important diagnostic feature that can distinguish it from other similar species is the forward-pointing spines between its antenna. This feature can be most easily identified using a hand lens, handheld magnifier or magnifying pot.

Green shieldbug by H. Ketley

This similar-looking species is a (common) green shieldbug (Palomena prasina). Despite its name, this species can range from bright green to bronze, particularly becoming darker prior to winter hibernation. Its brown wing membranes set it apart from similar, non-native species, such as the southern green shieldbug (Nezara viridula), as noted in the guide. If you are able to look closely at one, you’ll be able to see it is covered in tiny black dots, with red eyes, feet and antennae (primarily the last two segments). It can also have a red edge all the way around its thorax and abdomen.

Common malachite beetle by H. Ketley

We also managed to spot this colourful species, which we were able to ID using the guide as a common malachite beetle (Malachius bipustulatus). The red ‘shoulders’ and red spots on the end of the abdomen, helpfully annotated in the guide’s photo, made this species easy to identify.

Using this guide, we were also able to identify a scorpionfly, bluebottle, greenbottle, dark-edged bee-fly, thick-legged flower beetle, two-spot ladybird and a buff-tailed bumblebee.

Our opinion

As noted in the introduction to this guide, there are around 24,000 insect species in Britain, and almost three times that in mainland Europe. And so there will always be species you find in your garden that are not in this field guide, which covers only 150 species.  The breadth of the species covered within the guide perhaps could’ve been expanded, but as it does cover many of the most common species, you are still likely to see a number of these species within your garden and local green spaces. In addition, the paired-down number of species can be useful, as it can be quicker and easier for readers to accurately identify species they’ve found. Therefore, this is still an incredibly useful guide, particularly for naturalists, beginners and those who want a more concise and affordable insect field guide.

An Identification Guide to Garden Insects of Britain and North-West Europe
Dominic Couzens and Gail Ashton

Ash Dieback (Chalara)

In this image it is clear to see how the crown of the mature ash tree is suffering from dieback. (Image by Sarang via commons.wikimedia.org)
What is ash dieback?

Ash dieback is a fungus called Hymenoscyphus fraxineus (known previously as Chalara fraxineus, hence the disease commonly being referred to as ‘Chalara’). The fungus originated in Asia where it is largely harmless to native ash trees; this is because they have developed resistance to it during their long existence side-by-side. It was introduced to Europe around 30 years ago via infected ash saplings, and was first discovered in 2012 in the UK in south-east England. This area remains the most severely affected, although it is systematically spreading throughout the rest of the country.

The fungus overwinters in the leaf litter surrounding the ash tree, and during the summer and autumn it produces fruiting bodies which in turn release huge numbers of spores that land on the leaves of the surrounding trees. They are also carried over large distances by the wind. The spores enter the tree via the leaves and continue to penetrate the plant’s cells, where they eventually block the system responsible for water transport. Young, fragile trees can die very quickly, whereas older, stronger trees may fight back for a while before repeated infections over several years finally kill them.

Why is it a problem and how concerned should we be?

Ash trees play a huge role in woodland diversity and, when present in hedgerows and gardens, are key in connecting fragmented habitats. They are home to a variety of invertebrates, birds and lichens and, as with all trees, contribute to purifying the air and absorbing CO2. As wood from the ash tree is highly valued both for timber and firewood, there is also an economic cost to their loss. This is compounded further by the cost incurred in dealing with the dead trees.

It is expected that, in time, Britain will lose in excess of 80% of its ash trees, incurring a total cost of £15 billion.

How can I recognise the signs of ash dieback?

Ash trees affected by ash dieback initially exhibit dark patches on their leaves which then wilt and go black, and are often shed early. Trees also show characteristic diamond shaped lesions where the branches meet the trunk. Epicormic growth is common as the infected tree becomes stressed – this is where previously dormant buds lower down the trunk begin to show new growth.

The Observatree website features several excellent ID guides, videos and posters designed to help non-specialists identify the presence of ash dieback.

A large lesion on the branch of an infected ash tree. (Image Courtesy of The Food and Environment Research Agency (Fera), Crown Copyright)
What can be done to address the problem?

There is no known cure for ash dieback, although some fungicides have been found to be effective in suppressing the symptoms if they are reapplied every year. Due to the expense of this, they are only really viable for trees of special cultural or heritage value.

Otherwise, the best options moving forwards are to monitor the spread of the disease in the hopes that enough mature trees will show resistance to the fungi that populations can be re-established from their offspring. For this reason, young ash trees should be carefully protected from grazing. Woodlands and parks, particularly those that have lost ash trees, should be replanted with a variety of native and locally grown species to help to protect and improve biodiversity.

In managed parks and gardens, burning the leaf litter around the trees in autumn and winter may be effective in minimising the spread of spores. Similarly, encouraging the public to wash shoes, bikes, buggies and vehicles between visits to different woodlands may also be of some use.

In an infected tree, the centre of the branch commonly turns grey-brown. (Image Courtesy of The Food and Environment Research Agency (Fera), Crown Copyright)
What can I do to help?

There are several things you can do to help:

• Support the Woodland Trust by donating to their Tree Disease Fighting Fund. All donations will go towards efforts to monitor the spread of ash dieback, replanting healthy trees and improving biosecurity measures.
• Practice good woodland hygiene – this includes cleaning shoes, car and bike wheels after visits to woodlands, as well as refraining from taking cuttings or other plant material.
• If you spot an ash tree showing symptoms of ash dieback, you can report it on the TreeAlert website in Britain, or the TreeCheck website in Northern Ireland.

Further reading/resources

Ash | Edward Parker
Ash charts the evolution of this magnificent tree, and its 43 species across the northern hemisphere for the past 44 million years. From its significance in ancient Indo-European cultures, to its remarkable properties in treating Alzheimer’s, Parker looks at the botany, cultural history and medicinal uses of the ash tree.

 

Oak and Ash and Thorn | Peter Fiennes
Immersing himself in the beauty of Britain’s woodlands and the art and writing they have inspired, Peter Fiennes explores our long relationship with the woods and the sad, violent story of how so many have been lost. Just as we need them, our woods need us too. But who, if anyone, is looking out for them?

 

The Ash Tree | Oliver Rackham
Oliver Rackham delves into the history and ecology of the ash tree, exploring its place in human culture, explaining ash disease, and arguing that globalisation is now the single greatest threat to the world’s trees and forests. There is no more urgent message for our times. We cannot go on treating trees like commodities to be bought and sold.

 

Ash | Archie Miles
Ash looks at every aspect of the tree: its many visual manifestations; the uses of the timber for so many different purposes; its cultural significance in place names, folklore, myth and superstition; its inspirational importance for artists, poets and writers; and, of course, the issues arising from the inevitable spread of ash dieback.

This Week in Biodiversity News – 1st June 2022

Climate change

Climate change is weakening trees. Conditions such as extreme heat and drought can impact tree growth, potentially encouraging the formation of shallow root systems. These conditions can also increase the chances of tree diseases thriving. This, along with the potential impact of development, such as road management which damages root systems, is reducing the resilience of trees to stresses such as adverse weather, increasing the likelihood of storm damage.

Climate change and development are weakening trees. Image by Padraic via Flickr

A vulnerable coral species, the pink sea fan, may be likely to spread northwards due to climate change. The species, found in shallow waters from the western Mediterranean to north-west Ireland and south-west England and Wales, is a species of principal importance in England and Wales. A new study, run by the University of Exeter, found that there will likely be an increase in suitable habitats for this species northwards, with existing habitats remaining suitable over the next 60-80 years. The results of this study could hopefully be used to identify areas that are a priority to protect the coral.

Policy

Peatlands are still being burnt, despite the new government ban. Peatlands deeper than 40cm are protected from burning by the new ban introduced last year. However, the RSPB has sent the government evidence of 79 fires that they believe are in breach of these new regulations. Both the RPSB and Greenpeace are calling for a blanket ban on the burning of all peat, regardless of depth. Peatland deterioration has been linked with the release of almost 3.7 million tonnes of carbon dioxide each year in the UK.

Research

New research has shown that sounds can be used to monitor the health of coral reefs. Monitoring the pops, clicks and clacks produced by fish and other marine life can be a non-intrusive, inexpensive and efficient method of tracking the state of coral reefs. Reduced biodiversity in degraded communities results in less activity, and so these reefs do not sound as loud compared to healthy ones. By monitoring decibel levels and comparing soundscapes using underwater microphones, researchers may be able to plan conservation interventions and monitor restoration projects on a long-term basis.

Coral reef sounds could be used to monitor ecosystem health. Image courtesy of Tiket2 via Flickr

A variety of targeted conservation approaches are needed to protect UK bumblebee species. A study, using 10 years of data from Bumblebee Conservation Trust’s citizen science scheme BeeWalk, has found that a ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach to bumblebee conservation may not be an effective method, as there is a wide range of differences between species in the types of habitats they are associated with. Instead, conservation efforts would be better served by being carefully tailored to particular species.

Diatoms, the most important producers of plant biomass in the ocean, could decline due to ocean acidification. These calcifying organisms were previously thought to benefit from ocean acidification as they rely on silica rather than calcium carbonate to build their shells, however, a new study suggests diatom populations could drastically decline. Ocean acidification causes the silicon shells of these species to dissolve more slowly, causing them to sink to deeper water layers. In these layers, these shells chemically dissolve and are converted back to silica. Because of this, the abundance of silica is reduced in the surface layers where new shells are formed, resulting in a decline in diatom populations.

Conservation

Three BioBlitz events held in New South Wales have recorded the recovery of flora, fauna and fungi after the Black Summer bushfires. The UNSW project has found positive signs of recovery; at the latest BioBlitz a total of 2,200 individuals belonging to 823 species were recorded, nine of which are threatened. These citizen science events are proving incredibly useful tools for scientists and researchers to study the prevalence of species across large areas.

The Marine Stewardship Council, an organisation that certifies fisheries under its blue tick sustainability label, has ordered an independent investigation into allegations of shark finning on tuna vessels in certified Pacific fisheries. Between 2019 and early 2020, reports state that silky sharks and a black-tipped reef shark had their fins cut before being discarded overboard. Both species are classified as Near Threatened.

Grey nurse shark by Greg McFall/NOAA via Flickr

In other shark news, Grey nurse sharks are thought to be thriving at a popular dive site in Australia, but there are calls for more research into this critically endangered species. Only around 2,000 individuals are estimated to be left in the wild, following persecution during the 1960s and 70s inspired by the movie Jaws. Bass Point, where a large number of grey nurse sharks were counted, was removed as a critical habitat site in 2013. Conservation biologist Adam Stow, who has been studying this species for nearly 20 years, says more research is needed into the impact of climate change on their movements.

Work begins to turn 99,000 hectares in England into ‘nature recovery’ projects. Five landscape-scale projects in the West Midlands, Cambridgeshire, the Peak District, Norfolk and Somerset are aiming to help tackle wildlife loss and the climate crisis, while also improving public access to nature. The proposed projects range from transforming farmland into chalk grassland to restoring dewponds and sustainably managing wetlands.

Extinctions

According to a new report, two-fifths of Britain’s butterfly species are at risk of becoming extinct. The Butterfly Conservation wildlife charity has released a ‘Red List’, which includes half of British butterfly species, a 26% increase from 10 years ago. There are a number of factors causing this decline but the main ones highlighted have been habitat loss, land-use change and climate change.