Tree surgeons in Barcombe save endangered bird’s habitat. The company tasked with trimming treetops at Barcombe’s disused railway station in East Sussex worked with Barcombe Community Wildlife Group to help maintain the important breeding ground for endangered nightingales. The tree surgeons enhanced the habitat for nightingales and the insects they feed upon along the 33,000-volt 3km route, while still maintaining the power network. The trees and surrounding vegetation were recycled into woodchip mulch to use in the soil, and wood stacks were also made for the area to encourage wildlife.
Grey wolves have had their federal protections restored across much of the US. In 2020, the U.S Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) decided to delist wolves from the Endangered Species Act. However, it was suggested by wolf advocates that the USFWS failed to show that wolf populations could be sustainably managed by states in the Midwest and parts of the West without federal protection. A US District Judge stated that the USFWS had not considered species-wide recovery and instead focused on individual recovered populations, such as in the Northern Rockies. Thus, he ruled to immediately restore federal protection to wolves in the Midwest and parts of the West.
Paignton Zoo is freezing the DNA of endangered animals in hopes to save them from extinction. In a project called “Noah’s Ark of DNA”, the zoo has frozen samples from 82 species, including mouse deer, Humboldt penguins and panther chameleons, with the aim of collecting samples from hundreds of the world’s 40,000 endangered species. This is one of several DNA preservation projects in the UK, acting as a potential safeguard for many species.
A study has found that air pollution makes it tough for pollinators to stop and smell the flowers. Researchers have found that common, ground-level air pollutants react with floral scents, leading to reduced pollination. The presence of nitrogen oxides and ozone resulted in up to 90% fewer flower visits, as well as one-third less pollination than in a smog-free field. The concentrations of pollutants used in the study were less than half the average levels of air pollutants considered safe under US law.
Invasive non-native species cost the UK approximately £122 million per year and are a huge driver of biodiversity decline worldwide. There are a surprising number of non-native reptile and amphibian species in the UK, from non-breeding released pet terrapins to established populations of midwife toads, although the impact of some of these species on our native wildlife is not yet fully understood.
The first part of the 2022 Herpetofauna Workers Meeting included a number of talks that discussed the latest research on introduced reptile and amphibian species in the UK, including the Aesculapian Snake in Wales and the Alpine Newt in Northern Ireland. We were pleased to be able to attend and take part in this event again this year, and below is summary of some of the fascinating talks from what was an interesting and informative afternoon.
The Aesculapian Snake
The Aesculapian Snake Zamenis longissimus is a non-venomous species found across southern and central Europe, with relic populations in northern Europe. Although not native to the UK, there are two known introduced populations, one on the grounds of the Welsh Mountain Zoo in Colwyn Bay, Wales, and another along Regents Canal in London. There is also a possible third population in Bridgend in South Wales, but this is unconfirmed as of yet. Tom Major from the University of Bangor is using radio telemetry to study the population at Colwyn Bay to understand how this species is surviving, and he has gained some incredible insights into the ecology of the Aesculapian Snake over the past year.
While tracking nine adult individuals he found that on average the snakes travel the distance of approximately three and a half rugby pitches, and tend to visit one particular place where they stay for roughly four days before setting off again. This seemed to be anywhere that was warm and dry, from a chapel roof to a compost heap. By the end of the tracking period four individuals were still alive. Buzzards, stoats and cars were the reasons behind a few of the deaths, but one interesting cause was cannibalism – one tracked snake was recorded being eaten by another tracked individual, the first known occurrence of this behaviour in this species.
Turtle Tally
Reptiles and amphibians are becoming increasingly popular pets, but a lack of knowledge of their complicated care requirements or an unexpected change in an owner’s circumstances, amongst other reasons, can lead to the intentional release of these exotic animals into the wild. In order to gain an understanding of the distribution and impact of released pet terrapins in the UK in particular, Turtle Tally UK is a nationwide citizen science project that calls for the general public to submit their own terrapin sightings and photos. During her talk, Turtle Tally project lead Suzie Simpson shared some of the findings since the project began in 2019. Each year since has seen an increase in the number of sightings submitted, and hotspots have become apparent in London, Cardiff, Swansea and Liverpool. Yellow-bellied and Red-eared Slider were amongst the most frequently recorded species, and generally only one individual was recorded per sighting.
Red-Eared Slider by Jim, the Photographer via Flickr
When they are out of water, terrapins are usually spotted on logs, rocks and even litter – any raised platform in a water body that they can use for basking. This also includes the nests of waterbirds, but so far there has been no evidence that these terrapins show signs of aggression to waterbirds, or that they predate on chicks. Some species, such as snappers and soft shells, would be more of a concern, however, and the Turtle Tally UK project aims to continue to collect data to further our understanding about the impacts of released pet terrapins on native wildlife. Egg laying has been observed on occasion, but due to the UK’s cooler climate, reproduction is very rarely successful. However climate change could result in more suitable conditions for breeding in the future.
The Alpine Newt in Northern Ireland
The Smooth Newt is Ireland’s only native species of newt and, with its distinctive orange belly and spotted pattern, it is easily recognisable. In September 2020, a strange looking newt was found in Northern Ireland during a bat survey. With a similarly orange belly, but without the spotted markings on its underside and darker in colour, this particular individual did not match the description of a Smooth Newt. It was soon confirmed that this was an Alpine Newt, a species found in Europe but not native to the UK. The discovery of this species is a particular concern as the Alpine Newt is a known vector of chytrid fungus. Rob Gondola, Ryan Boyle and Éinne Ó Cathasaigh provided an update of the consequent Alpine Newt surveys that took place during the following summer in 2021. Thankfully, all the swabs that were taken to test for diseases have come back negative, and they were able to determine the presence of two established populations. Further surveys and testing are hoped to continue in 2022.
There were a number of other talks throughout the conference, from the ongoing study of midwife toads in the UK (another non-native species that was introduced over 100 years ago) to the impact of climate change on UK herpetofauna. This was an enlightening and fascinating afternoon and we look forward to Part 2 of the 2022 Herpetofauna Workers Meeting later on in the year. The date and location of the event will be confirmed at a future date, but any details will be made available on the ARC or ARG UK website. A recording of Part 1 will also be made available – keep an eye on the ARC website for further details.
February marks the approach of the busy spring survey season and is the perfect time to take stock and make sure you have everything you need for your upcoming fieldwork.
To avoid disrupting any survey work later on in the year, we recommend that you take the time now to inspect all technical equipment for any faults. This will allow you to organise any necessary repairs in plenty of time.
We also suggest organising and ordering any equipment you may still require ahead of time, including accessories such as SD cards and batteries.
To help you get equipped for your surveys, we have compiled a helpful list of the key upcoming surveys that are due to begin in the next few months, together with any essential equipment that they require.
February
Badger bait surveying is best undertaken from late February to late April. Use a peanut and syrup mix with different colour badger bait marking pellets for each sett.
February is also a key time to survey bat hibernation roosts. We stock all of the main passive bat detectors currently on the market, as well as a comprehensive range of endoscopes.
March
Reptile felts or corrugated refugia for the survey of reptiles should be put out a few weeks before surveys start to allow them to ‘bed down’. Refugia inspections tend to begin in March or April depending on weather conditions.
Newt surveys start in mid-March and continue through to June. We offer newt bottle-traps as either whole or pre-cut bottles. Bamboo canes that are used to hold the bottle-traps in place are available to purchase separately.
eDNA surveys for Great Crested Newts have a relatively short survey window between 15th April and 30th June. We recommend organising and booking your dates and kits in advance.
The Song Meter 2 range of passive bat recorders from Wildlife Acoustics
Please note that some of the species mentioned above are protected by law in the UK. Any survey work on protected species must be undertaken by a licenced ecologist. Different levels of licence are required for different survey and mitigation methods. For more information, please visit: https://www.gov.uk/guidance/wildlife-licences.
If you have any queries you can contact our customer services team on 01803 865913 or via email at customer.services@nhbs.com.
We are delighted to announce Helm as our Publisher of the Month for February 2022. Helm has published some of the most loved and authoritative bird books in the world in the last 30 years. Starting with Seabirds in 1983, the Helm imprint has expanded the Helm Identification Guides series into a hallmark of ground-breaking identification guides to the birds of the world. Their works also include the Helm Field Guides, Helm Photographic Guides, and the growing Where to Watch Birds series.
Browse a selection of Helm titles below, or explore their entire range here.
This guide to the feathers of Europe’s birds covers more than 400 species, with an innovative key allowing for exceptionally precise identification by colour as well as feather structure and shape. Collection and conservation methods, locations of feathers on the bird, and identification and description of the feathers of species are clearly explained and richly illustrated.
Check out our Testing the Guide article, where we explored the usability and applications of Feathers.
Vagrancy, the appearance of birds outside their normal home range, has fascinated naturalists for centuries. This monograph explores what drives this phenomenon and charts its occurrence across bird families.
The legendary Moult and Ageing of European Passerines returns in a completely revised second edition. Next to updates and improvements, 16 new species records have been added for a total of 74. This is the must-have reference for bird ringers and ornithologists, and a sublime book for readers interested in feathers.
In the making for some twenty years, this English-language guide to Argentina includes coverage of offshore islands. With 1075 species fully illustrated and described, this spectacular book includes 199 superb colour plates by some of the world’s foremost artists, with concise identification text on facing pages. There are also detailed maps for every species included with the main text. The coverage includes the islands of the South Atlantic, such as the Falklands.
This unique and spectacular handbook set is the most complete and comprehensive photographic guide to the passerines of the Western Palearctic. It contains the most up-to-date information available on bird identification covering all aspects of plumage, moult, ageing and sexing, with sections on voice and other identification criteria, and detailed taxonomic notes, backed up by a remarkable collection of more than 5,000 photographs.
This latest addition to the Helm Wildlife Guides series provides photographic coverage of more than 300 species regularly seen in this region, with concise text for each species including identification, calls, behaviour, distribution and habitat. This pocket-sized guide also contains 400 carefully selected colour photos.
This is the ultimate flight-identification guide to Western Palearctic raptors. It covers 60+ species, and goes to subspecific level wherever needed. It includes stunning images, most of which have never been published before, as well as thorough text covering every plumage and age in breathtaking detail.
This comprehensive field guide covers all of the species recorded in Chile, including vagrants. Concise species accounts describe key identification features, status, range, habitat and voice, supported by accurate distribution maps and 88 colour illustrations in superb detail.
All prices correct at the time of this article’s publication.
River pollution is a significant issue in the UK; many rivers are contaminated with sewage, agricultural and road run-off, microplastics and litter. One council is now attempting to protect one river from this by looking to grant it the ‘Freedom of the City’, usually granted to people and organisations to recognise their contributions to a city. Norwich City Council hopes that this honorary title, in combination with other new measures, such as developing planning policies to protect biodiversity, will protect River Wensum from pollution and invasive species. The council will also be asking Anglian Water for evidence on what is being done to prevent sewage spills.
A new leafhopper has been discovered on a student field trip to Kibale National Park, in west Uganda. Dr Alvin Helden of Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge named the insect Phlogis kibalensis and said it’s from an “incredibly rare” group of leafhoppers, whose “biology remains almost completely unknown”. The last recorded sighting of a species from the Phlogis genus was in the Central African Republic more than 50 years ago, in 1969.
After the devastating bushfires between 2019 and 2020, some koala populations in Australia were on the brink of extinction. Now, the Australian federal government has committed a further $50 million for the next four years to aid koala population recovery, bringing the total federal investment to $74 million since 2019. This funding will also go towards habitat and health protection projects and extending the national koala monitoring program.
A new species of angel shark (Squatina mapama) has been identified in the Central American Caribbean. Angel sharks are flat-bodied, bottom-dwelling species that resemble stingrays. The species was identified through genetic analysis, as it’s a cryptic shark species: they’re morphologically indistinguishable from one or more other Squatina species. S. mapama, whose suggested common name is the ‘small-crested angel shark’, is the fourth new Squatina species to be identified in the last decade.
Herons are freshwater and coastal birds in the family Ardeidae. We have several resident and migrant heron species in the UK, including bitterns, which are a part of the subfamily Botaurinae, and egrets, which, despite being named differently, are not a biologically distinct group from herons. There are also several similar bird species outside of this family that might make identification difficult, particularly from a distance, such as cranes, ibises and spoonbills. One of the distinctions between these birds and the herons that resemble them is seen in flight; herons fly with their neck retracted, while cranes, ibises and spoonbills fly with them extended.
Many heron species have faced persecution during the 19th and early 20th centuries due to hunting for their plumes, which were used for hat decorations. They’re present on all continents except Antarctica and inhabit a wide variety of habitats, feeding on the margins of water bodies such as lakes, rivers, and the sea.
Herons are medium to large-sized birds that have long necks and legs. To identify individual heron species, look for key features such as size, foot and bill colour, plumage colouration and distribution. However, many species can have different colour morphs and some features of breeding individuals can also change colour. Using equipment such as a scope or a pair of binoculars, as well as a guide covering all colour morphs, can be helpful.
Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea)
Distribution: Widespread Wingspan: 155–195cm Bird of Conservation Concern 4 (BoCC4) status: Green What to look for: This is a tall bird, with grey and black wings, a yellow bill and long, pale legs. They’re a grey-backed species, with a long, white or pale grey long neck and a white head with black eyestripes that extend to long crest feathers. They have dappled black and white plumage on the front of their neck. Grey herons can usually be seen standing very still, either stretched out tall or with their neck retracted, at the edges of water bodies.
Distribution: Common in the south and east coasts of England and Wales, with their range increasing northwards. Wingspan: 88–106cm BoCC4 status: Green What to look for: The little egret is a white bird with long crest feathers at the back of their head during the breeding season. They have a black bill and legs, and one of their most defining features is their bright yellow feet. Apart from the feet, they are similar to the great white egret but little egrets are more common and smaller, about half the size of the grey heron. They also have featherless ‘lores’, the region between the eye and the bill, which can be pale yellow or greenish. This helps to distinguish them from the much rarer migrant, the snowy egret (Egretta thula), which have bright yellow lores that meet across the top of their beak. Snowy egrets also have yellow along the backs of their legs.
Distribution: Widespread, most common in south-east England and East Anglia. Wingspan: 131–170cm BoCC4 status: Not assessed What to look for: This is a tall bird of similar size to the grey heron, with an all-white plumage. Because of this colouration, they can be confused with the little egret but this species is much larger and lacks the bright yellow feet. They also have a yellow bill, but this becomes mostly black during the breeding season. They have long black legs with paler upperparts that can turn red in breeding birds.
Distribution: Restricted to mainly Norfolk, Suffolk and Lancashire Wingspan: 100–130cm BoCC4 status: Amber What to look for: This bird has a buff-brown coloured plumage with dark bars and streaks. The crown of their head is black, with a buff line above their eye and a dark brown moustache stripe that extends onto the neck. Their bill is yellow and brown, and their legs and feet are a pale green. The males are significantly larger than the females and tend to have more markings, although there is a large variation between individuals.
Distribution: Regular visitors but only two confirmed successful breeding records in Somerset and Yorkshire. Wingspan: 52–58cm BoCC4 status: Not assessed What to look for: The little bittern has a black-green crown, back and tail, with a pale buff underside and wing patches. The sides of their neck are grey and yellow, and they have pale green legs and lores. Their throat is striated with darker brown and paler cream plumage. Their bill can vary from yellow to yellow-green with a brown upper edge.
Distribution: Becoming more numerous in southern Britain and Ireland. Wingspan: 88–96cm BoCC4 status: Not assessed What to look for: The cattle egret is a white bird that, in the breeding season, has yellowish-buff plumes on its cheeks, throat, back, breast and crown. They have a yellow bill and pale legs, both of which can turn red during the breeding season. Some individuals have also been recorded with grey, melanistic plumages. As their name suggests, they’re often seen with grazing livestock, as they consume ticks and flies from cattle.
Distribution: Very rare, confirmed sightings in the Isles of Scilly. Wingspan: 167–201cm BoCC4 status: Not assessed What to look for: This species is quite similar to the grey heron, although they can be distinguished by the great blue heron’s long, shaggy chest feathers, browner colouration and slightly larger size. There are thought to be two or three forms of this species, although there is a debate as to whether the white coloured population represents a white morph, a subspecies or a separate species. The white morph has a white plumage, orange bill and orange legs. The dark morph is grey with red-brown upper legs and red-brown plumage along the leading edge of their wings, seen best in flight. They have a reddish-grey neck with a pale head and dark crown. They also have a dull grey bill and legs, which both become orange during the start of the breeding season. The third is Würdemann’s heron, an intermediate morph, thought to be the result of a pairing of white and dark morphs. They are paler than the dark morph, with a white crown and crest feathers, but still maintaining the darker patternation on the wings. Did you know? There are five accepted subspecies of great blue heron: A. h. herodias,A. h. fanini, A. h. wardi, A h. cognata and A. h. Occidentalis (known as the ‘great white heron’), which can all be distinguished by traits such as wing and bill size, overall size and plumage shade.
Great Blue Heron Morphs by Andy Morffew via Flickr
Purple Heron (Ardea purpurea)
Distribution: Rare migrant, with around 20 recorded sightings per year across the UK. Wingspan: 120–152cm BoCC4 status: Not assessed What to look for: This species has a dark grey back, wings and tail. They have a reddish neck with buff-coloured patches and dark longitudinal stripes from their head down to their chest. Their bill is long, with a darker top section. The purple heron also has a black crown that extends in a stipe down the back of their neck and their legs are orange with black stripes. The covert feathers on the bend and underside of their wings are purple, and they also have long, pale feathers hanging down either side of their chest.
Waders, also known as shorebirds, are a part of the order Charadriiformes and are most commonly found along the shoreline and in coastal habitats such as mudflats, saltmarshes and estuaries. These species feed by wading in shallow water for small invertebrates. Thus, many species in this order have long legs and a long bill.
Almost all wader species are ground-nesting birds. They build their nests either on the shoreline or inland habitats with short vegetation such as farmland and heathland. This makes them vulnerable to disturbance, from walkers and dogs, and to many predators. While most of the species in this article are listed as Least Concern by the IUCN red list (except the curlew, which is near threatened), many wader species are considered critically endangered. All the species mentioned below are placed on either the Red or Amber Birds of Conservation Consern 4 list. In the UK, the main threats are climate change and human development, reducing suitable nesting habitats. As farmers are pressured to increase their yield, less of their land is left available for nesting birds. Additional threats include pollution, changes in river management, changes to habitats such as afforestation or wetland drainage and dredging. Therefore, these threats, along with a high number of predators, are causing many wader populations to decline.
Luckily, many can still be seen while birdwatching along UK coastlines. A pair of binoculars or a scope are useful for spotting identifying features without disturbing the birds. A notebook or birdwatching journal can help you keep track of everything you’ve seen. It would also be best to bring a field guide to other wader species not mentioned in this article, a selection of which have been listed below.
Curlew (Numenius arquata)
Distribution: Here all year round, curlews can be seen along the whole of UK’s coastline, with the largest populations in areas such as the Solway Firth, the Wash, and the Severn, Humber and Thames estuaries. Size: Length: 48–57cm, Wingspan: 89–106cm BoCC4 status: Red What to look for: Curlews are the largest wader in Europe, a mottled brown bird that visits the coasts around the UK in winter, but can be found inland in heath and moor and upland habitats. Nationally, their numbers are in steep decline. They have a distinctive long delicate downward curved bill and an evocative and somewhat haunting call.
Distribution: Occuring in wetland areas such as estuaries, saltmarshes and flood meadows, they’re widespread across the UK, although the breeding population is greatest in Scotland and northern England. Size: L: 24–27cm, WS: 47–53cm BoCC4 Status: Amber What to look for: Redshanks are small mottled brown waders with bright orange-red legs and an orange-red bill tipped with black. In-flight, they have darkly tipped wings with a bright white stripe on the trailing edge. They can often be seen foraging along the tideline on the coast and at estuaries and marshes.
Distribution: Widespread along UK’s coastline, they’re also found in most major estuaries and occasionally inland flooded gravel pits and large rivers. Size: L: 39–44cm, WS: 72–83cm BoCC4 status: Amber What to look for: Oystercatchers are a common and unmistakable wader around the UK coastline. They have bold black and white markings, a long bright orange-red bill and long pinkish-red legs. They are very vocal birds and their distinctive piping call can often be heard as they tour rock pools and the tide line.
Oystercatcher by Paul Asman and Jill Lenobie via Flickr
Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus)
Distribution: Found in habitats such as farmland and estuaries, they occur throughout the UK but particularly in lowland areas of northern England and eastern Scotland. Size: L: 28–31cm, WS: 82–87cm BoCC4 status: Red What to look for: From afar and in flight, Lapwings appear black and white with long rounded wings and a wavering flight pattern. Up close they are a beautiful petrol green colour on top and white below. They have a long crest on their head, large dark eyes (underlined with a black line) and red legs. Did you know? They are also known as peewit, an old name honouring their plaintive and distinctive call.
Distribution: This more restricted species can been seen along the east coast in coastal lagoons during the summer, and around sheltered estuaries of south-west England and south Wales during the winter. Size: L: 42–46cm, WS: 67–77cm BoCC4 status: Amber What to look for: These very graceful white and black waders are unmistakable, with long, slim grey legs and a distinctive upturned bill that they use to filter food from the tideline in a characteristic side-to-side sweep of their head. Did you know? Successful recolonisation of this species in 1947, after its extinction within the UK, led to their adoption by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) as their logo.
Distribution: Widespread, this species is found on moorland and well-vegetated wetlands across the UK. Size: L: 23–28cm, WS: 39–45cm BoCC4 status: Amber What to look for: Snipe have short legs and a long, straight bill, with mottled brown feathers on their back and head. Recognisable features are the buff stripes along their back and alternate pale and dark stripes across their head. Their underparts are pale, with a heavily marked chest. When tucked, their wings fall short of the tail and point upwards slightly.
Distribution: In summer, this wader species can mainly be found along rivers, lakes and reservoirs in Scotland, northern England, Wales and Northern Ireland. In winter, they aremore likely to occur along the south coast, and in spring and autumn, they can be found throughout other parts of the UK, near freshwater habitats and some estuaries. Size: L: 19–21cm, WS: 32–35cm BoCC4 status: Amber What to look for: Common sandpipers may initially seem similar visually to snipe, but there are several key differences. This species has the same contrasting brown upperparts and paler, white underparts, but it is a more striking difference in this species. The common sandpiper has a smaller bill and, most importantly, lacks the stripe patternation of the snipe. They can also be identified through their habitual bobbing motion, called ‘teetering’, and the distinct three-note call they give before they fly off.
Distribution: Found around much of the UK coast in suitable habitats, such as shingle beaches, they’re also occasionally found on reservoirs and inland flooded gravel pits. Size: L: 18–20cm, WS: 48–57cm BoCC4 status: Red What to look for: This charming species has a brownish-grey back and head, with pale underparts. Their distinctive features are the black and white rings around their neck and the patternation on their face. This bird also has orange legs and a striking orange bill with a black tip. They can be mistaken for a similar species, the little ringed plover (Charadrius dubious). However, that species lacks the orange bill and has bright yellow eyes. The little ringed plover, as the name suggests, is also a smaller species.
Ringed plover by Ekaterine Chernetsova (Papchinskaya) via Flickr
Foulness Point saltmarsh by Jeremy Halls via Flickr
Saltmarsh, the next habitat in our NHBS Introduction to Habitats series, is an area of the extreme upper shore of sheltered coasts that is inundated with seawater periodically during high tides. However, saltmarshes can also occur further inland, such as along tidal rivers. These habitats are usually angiosperm-dominated areas of vegetation that can develop on a variety of sediment types, including sand and mudflats. They often display striking vegetation zonation patterns across elevational gradients, relating to the degree or frequency of immersion in seawater. This means that, usually, more salt-tolerant species (halophytes) will be found lower down the shore on the seaward side, while less tolerant species would be more likely situated further up on the landward side. These zones are broadly referred to as low marsh and high marsh, but can be further split into an initial intertidal sand- or mudflat, a pioneer zone, lower marsh, middle marsh and the upper marsh zone. These most tolerant species are usually the pioneer species, growing in mud- or sandflats – this marks the beginning of ecological succession in saltmarshes; these plants stabillise the substrate, and add oxygen and other nutrients to the saltmarsh, allowing other plants to establish.
This is a generally well-studied habitat, which is fully classified by the UK National Vegetation Classifications, with 26 types defined. Saltmarshes are made up of a network of creeks and pans (pools), creating sections of land and water. These creeks are developed by the growth of pioneer plant species that grow on raised areas. This concentrates any water flow into channels, which deepen to form creeks as the saltmarsh develops. These areas can be very productive habitats, as the muddy channels can contain sediment rich in decaying matter, supporting a wide diversity of species such as crabs, shrimps and snails, providing food for wading birds and other predators.
What species can you find here?
Flora
Saltmarsh grass (Puccinellia sp.)
Reflexed Saltmarsh-grass – Puccinellia distans subsp. distans by Gertjan van Noord via Flickr
Puccinellia, also known as saltgrass, is a genus of grass that grows in wet environments, often in saline conditions. Some of the saltmarsh grasses within this genus, such as common saltmarsh-grass (Puccinellia maritima), can dominate saltmarsh plant communities, creating dense tufts of hummocks. They can also often be found in pioneer communities, such as in recently disturbed or forming areas of saltmarsh. Some species can grow to quite a height, some between 60cm and 80cm, and provide a refuge for many different animal species.
This flowering plant, also known as herbaceous seepweed, is a yellow-green shrub with succulent leaves and green flowers. It grows in aquatic, terrestrial and wetland habitats, but is mainly found in salt marshes and along seashores, reaching up to about 35cm in height. It’s an important habitat-building species, as it captures mud and other sediment, and stabilises the saltmarsh.
Also known as Tripolium pannonicum, Aster pannonicus or seashore aster, this flowering plant is mainly confined to saltmarshes and estuaries, although it’s occasionally found on cliffs and inland salt works. Sea asters are a short-lived species that can form dense patches. They’re also known as Michaelmas daisies, as their late flowering period is between July and October. Thus, they’re an important source of nectar for several late butterfly species, such as the red admiral.
There are several different species with the common name sea purslane, but this species is a greyish-green shrub found in salt marshes and coastal dunes, usually flooded at high tide. They’re evergreen and contain important nutrients such as zinc and iron. This species can also be used as a bioindicator and biomonitor for mercury contamination in saltmarshes, as it accumulates in the roots and (at lower levels) in the leaves.
This species also has several botanical and common synonyms, including Obione portulacoides, Atriplex portulacoides, purslane orach and lesser shrubby orach.
Fauna
Saltmarshes are important breeding grounds for birds, such as waders and waterfowl, and feeding grounds for overwintering or migrant birds, including wheatear (Oenanthe oenanthe), redstart (Phoenicurus phoenicurus) and goldcrest (Regulus regulus). They also provide nursery sites for many fish species and support a large number of invertebrates.
The variety of habitats and conditions within saltmarshes supports a diverse range of invertebrates, including the saltmarsh plume moth. This distinctive species is found in saltmarshes in the south and east of England, with its larvae feeding on species such as sea-lavender (Limonium vulgare) and rock sea-lavender (Limonium binervosum). They feed on the underside of the leaves, hibernating close to the base of the plant until it can restart feeding in spring. Invertebrate species can be used as indicator species for the level of grazing a saltmarsh has undergone. For example, Agdistis bennetii is an indicator species for ungrazed saltmarshes, as they show a significant preference for these areas and are, therefore, more likely to be found in higher numbers than in grazed areas. This is most likely due to the larvae’s reliance on only Limonium species as food plants, which may be reduced or removed with grazing.
Three-spined stickleback by Gilles San Martin via Flickr
The three-spined stickleback is a small predatory fish that inhabits fresh, salt and brackish water and is very tolerant of changes in salinity. With a preference for slow-moving water with areas of vegetation, it can often be found in ponds, lakes, ditches and marshes. These fish have a brown back with silverish sides and belly. As their name suggests, they have three spines on their back. Males develop bright green flanks and a red throat and belly during spring (as pictured). They hunt invertebrates, including worms, crustaceans, insect larvae and small snails. They’re also prey for several species, including larger fish, such as trout, pike and perch, and birds, such as herons and kingfishers. Eggs, fry and juveniles are also prey for macroinvertebrates, such as dragonfly naiads.
Shore crabs are found along all shores of Britain and Ireland and inhabit a wide variety of shoreline habitats, from the intertidal zome down to a depth of 60m. They’re especially abundant in salt marshes and estuaries, feeding on algae, plants, arthropods, annelids (worms), molluscs and carrion. They’re also prey for some predatory fish and birds, including gulls, cormorants and certain duck species. Herbivory by certain crab species is thought to be impacting saltmarshes in certain areas. For example, bank die-offs of cordgrass species (Spartina spp.) in the saltmarshes of Cape Cod, Massachusetts has been attributed to the native purple marsh crab (Sesarma reticulatum), as dense populations are leading to intense grazing. Other crabs, however, such as the tunnelling mud crab (Helice crassa) found in New Zealand, are thought to be ecosystem engineers, as their burrows help to transport dissolved oxygen into the surrounding anoxic sediments, helping to promote nitrogen cycling bacteria.
Ragworm (Hediste diversicolor)
Ragworm by Dr Mary Gillham Archive Project via Flickr
Polychaete worms, also known as bristle worms, are a class of annelid worms that are generally found in marine environments. These species have pairs of fleshy protrusions on each segment of their body, resembling legs. Ragworms live in burrows and are widespread and common, often found in coastal or estuarine intertidal zones. They’re a key food source for many species of birds and fish, such as pied avocet (Recurvirostra avosetta), curlew (Numenius arquata), bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica), grey plover (Pluvialis squatarola), common sole (Solea solea) and European plaice (Pleuronectes platessa). These polychaetes have also been found to have deleterious effects on saltmarsh establishment, as well as seagrass meadows. This is thought to be due to ragworms pulling the leaves of cordgrass (Spartina anglica) into their burrows to feed while their burrowing activities is thought to reduce establishment rates due to its disturbance of the substrate.
This small, spiral-shelled snail is found along the British and Irish coastline. It is typically found in muddy sand, estuaries and saltmarshes, although it also occurs in lagoons and seagrass beds. Also referred to as Peringia ulvae or the laver spire shell, this species is most common in the upper half of the intertidal zone, feeding on detritus, microflora and seaweeds. They can be quite abundant across saltmarshes, therefore providing a major food source for multiple predators, including flatfish, such as common dab (Limanda limanda), and overwintering waterfowl, such as shelducks (Tadorna tadorna).
Overwintering birds
Bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica) by Laurie Boyle via Flickr
Saltmarshes are key habitats for many ducks, geese and waders, including the bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica). While some non-breeding individuals can be seen in the UK in summer, the highest numbers generally occur between November and February. They use their long bills and legs to pick their way through estuaries, mudflats, sandy shores, saltmarshes and other wetland habitats, mainly eating worms, shellfish, marine snails and shrimps. For more information on the other birds that utilise these habitats, check out our identification guides on UK ducks, geese and waders.
Several mammal and reptile species also utilise saltmarshes, such as Sika deer, adders, otters and stoats. Check out our identification guides for UK Deer, Reptile and Mustelid species for more detailed information about these.
Threats
The main threats to multiple coastal habitats are erosion, pollution, climate change and development. Sea level rise, combined with development, can cause a coastal squeeze – where saltmarsh habitats are unable to ‘move’ in response to changing tide levels, therefore they’re ‘squeezed’ between the rising sea and developed areas, such as where coastal defences have been built. Many coastal habitats are low-lying and are therefore vulnerable to flooding and are where flood defences are most likely to be placed. Aside from contributing to the coastal squeeze, this changes the relationship between the land and the sea, impeding natural inundation and sediment supply and the dynamics necessary to maintain the saltmarsh habitats.
Erosion from wave action, adverse weather, disturbance, farming and grazing can lead to a reduction in stabilising plants and the rich substrate to be washed away. This reduces the habitats ability to support its diverse wildlife and reduces its suitability as a breeding ground for birds. However, carefully managed, low-intensity grazing can maintain saltmarshes, as it increases vegetation patchiness, reduces succession by woody species and, therefore, increases biodiversity.
Development, such as urban development, ports, harbours and land-claim for agriculture and industry, can threaten these habitats, although this is far less common now. Other threats include pollution, through run-off, litter, oil, heavy metals, air pollution and plastic pollution; invasive species, such as Spartina anglica (cordgrass), which can outcompete native plant species and dominate habitats; and overfishing, which can reduce top predators, leading to a collapse in saltmarsh ecosystems.
Hopes for the future
Protecting the remaining saltmarsh habitats, as well as restoring and creating new habitat areas, is an important part of conserving and increasing our biodiversity. Conservation often involves livestock grazing, site management, conservation designations, strict development planning policies, scientifically informed fishing quotas and public campaigns for litter picking, personal responsibility and reducing foot traffic on degraded areas. Restoration efforts usually focus on removing sea defences to restore the natural tidal influences such as inundation, removing invasive species and planting pioneer species to aid the return of natural saltmarsh communities. However, habitat restoration is a difficult and expensive process, and it can take many years to establish. They also may not always be successful, therefore the monitoring and study of saltmarshes are often a key part of restoration projects.
Areas of significance
Barnaby’s Sands and Burrows Marsh Nature Reserve, in Lancashire, which contains an extensive area of ungrazed saltmarsh.
Welwick Saltmarsh, East Riding of Yorkshire, is a sizable area of saltmarsh habitat on the bank of the River Humber, which hosts thousands of wading birds, as well as raptors and owls.
South Efford Marsh, a nature reserve in Devon, includes a patchwork of saltmarshes and grazing fields next to the River Avon.
Rye Harbour Nature Reserve, East Sussex, consists of a mosaic of coastal habitats including saltmarshes, shingle ridges, scrub and woodland.
Fingringhoe Wick, Essex, is a Site of Special Scientific Interest that hosts up to 200 species of birds and 350 species of flowering plants.
West Williamston, is a reserve in Wales made up of tidal creeks, saltmarsh, muddy shores, limestone rock outcrops and woodland. This site is frequented by a large number of waders and waterfowl, including little grebe, shelduck and curlew, as well as other birds such as tawny owl and wren.
Solway Firth is mostly tidal rivers, estuaries, mud and sand flats and lagoons, but there are also salt marshes, salt pastures and steppes. The saltmarshes of Solway Firth stretch along the coast of north Cumbria as well as crossing the border into Scotland. Over 70% of Scottish saltmarshes are within SSSIs.
Chats and flycatchers are birds in the Old World flycatcher family, the Muscicapidae. They are small passerine birds and are mainly insectivores. Chats (subfamily Saxicolinae) were originally included in the thrush family, Turdidae, but were reclassified after genetic analysis. Several chats and flycatchers have a number of subspecies, although the classification of these species is often contested.
This family contains many well-known species, such as the nightingale and the robin, which have important cultural connections and have inspired many songs, fairy tales, artworks and poetry. The nightingale’s song has been an important symbol for many poets and writers, often depicted as a mournful lament. The robin has featured prominently in British folklore for centuries, with a strong association with Christmas beginning in the mid-19th century. In both the 1960s and 2015, the robin was voted as the unofficial national bird of the UK.
Many of the birds on this list are striking examples of our wildlife but some now face a serious threat of extinction in the UK. Several have been listed on the birds of conservation concern 4 (BoCC4) red list, such as the pied flycatcher and whinchat, due to their severe population declines. These declines have been attributed to several different threats, including agricultural intensification, climate change and nest failures caused by mowing.
Nightingale (Luscinia megarhynchos)
Distribution: Summer migrant, visiting between April to July/August, Found mainly in the south east, east of England, south west and areas of the east and west Midlands.
BoCC4 status: Red
What to look for: The nightingale is a brown species, with a paler throat and underside and a reddish tail. They have pale, pinkish legs and a small beak that is yellow and grey.
Did you know? There are three accepted subspecies, the western nightingale (L. m. megarhynchos), which visits the UK, and the caucasian (L. m. africana) and eastern nightingale (L. m. golzii).
Distribution: Rare. During the summer, they’re found mainly in Greater London, Birmingham and the Black Country, with scattered pairs in Liverpool, Manchester and along the south coast between Suffolk and Dorset. During the autumn and winter months, they can be found along the south coast and areas of Wales and Scotland.
Birds of Conservation Concern 4 (BoCC4) status: Red
What to look for: This species is a similar size to the robin. Males are grey-black with a red tail, dark brown wings and a dark black face. Its underside is lighter and it has paler fringes on its secondary feathers, forming a whitish panel. Females are browner and lighter, with the same red tail. They have darker wingtips and a black beak.
Did you know? There are several subspecies of the black redstart, with different authorities accepting between five to seven subspecies, generally separated into three major groups according to DNA sequencing, biogeography and morphology. The subspecies that visits the UK is P. o. Gibraltariensis, one of the two European subspecies.
Distribution: A summer migrant, found in the north and west of the UK, with the greatest concentrations in Wales. BoCC4 status: Amber What to look for: The redstart has a distinctive bright orange-red tail. Males are black and grey with a red underside and black legs. Their face is black and their crown is grey, with a white patch across the forehead. Females are duller, with a greyish-brown colouration but still have red tail feathers. Did you know? There are two subspecies accepted for this species. The one that migrates to the UK is P. p. Phoenicurus, the other subspecies, P. p. samamisicus, is found in the Crimean Peninsula, Turkey, the Middle East and parts of Central Asia.
Distribution: Present across much of Scotland and Wales, parts of Northern Ireland and parts of England, particularly the south coast and the east of England. BoCC4 status: Green What to look for: During the summer, males have a black head with white patches on either side of their throat, a rust-red breast, streaked dark brown wings and a pale underside. During the winter, they are brown with a rust-brown breast. Females resemble the male winter form, although they are a lighter brown with a whitish throat. Did you know? There are two currently recognised subspecies, S. r. hibernans (present in the UK) and S. r. rubicola. S. r hibernans is the darker subspecies, with less white than S. r. rubicola.
Distribution: Much of Scotland, Wales, Ireland and northern England, as well as parts of the coasts of south east and south west England. BoCC4 status: Green What to look for: The males have a blue-grey upperside, black wings and a white underside, with an orange breast and throat. They have a black mask, edged above and below with white. Females are brown, with dark wingtips and an orange breast and throat, with no black mask. Both have a white rump and tail, with a black T-shape on their white tail. Immature and non-breeding birds lack the contrasting black wings and are buff coloured. Did you know? There are four accepted subspecies, two of which have been recorded in the UK, O. o. oenanthe and O. o. leucorhoa.
Distribution: Summer migrants to Scotland, Wales and the north and north east of England. They can be found in other areas during their migration, such as parts of the south west and Ireland. BoCC4 status: Red What to look for: This species has a pale eyestripe, dark cheek and crown, and a pale chin. The males have a streaky brown upperside, with a buff-orange breast and throat during the breeding season, but females are paler. Male whinchats have a dark tail with a white underside, while females have a paler tail with a white underside.
Distribution: This is a rare species and can be seen on passage between May to June and August to October, usually along the east coast of the UK. BoCC4 status: Not assessed What to look for: Two subspecies visit the UK, the red-spotted bluethroat (L. s. svecica) and the rarer white-spotted bluethroat (L. s. cyanecula). Both species have grey upperparts and white underparts, with a chestnut-coloured patch under their tail. The males have a bright blue patch on their throats, which is where the two subspecies differ. The white-spotted bluethroat has a patch of white on its throat within the blue patch, whereas the red-spotted bluethroat has a chestnut coloured patch. Under this patch on both subspecies is a half-moon of black and another of chestnut feathers. The beak is black, with yellow colouration on the inside and a yellow gape flange, the area where the upper and lower mandibles of the beak join together at the base.
(Red-spotted) ?sa Berndtsson via Flickr(White-spotted) Gertjan van Noord via Flickr
Pied Flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca)
Distribution: A summer migrant present in Wales, the north west of England, and parts of the south west and Scotland. BoCC4 status: Red What to look for: Male pied flycatchers have a mostly black upperside and white underside, with a white patch on the folded wing. Females and non-breeding males are browner, with a brownish chest and a less bold white wing patch. They have a black beak, and breeding males have a small white patch above it. Did you know? There are four recognised subspecies, F. h. hypoleuca is the subspecies that visits the UK but there is some suggestion that F. h. tomensis (formally F. h. sibirica) has also been recorded in Britain.
Distribution: Widespread across the UK between April to August/September. BoCC4 status: Red What to look for: The spotted flycatcher is a streaked grey-ish brown species, with a pale underside and a streaked breast and crown. They have a dark beak and legs and are a similar size to a house sparrow (Passer domesticus). Did you know? There are five recognised subspecies of spotted flycatcher. The subspecies that migrates to the UK is M. s. Striata.
Distribution: Widespread across the UK. BoCC4 status: Green What to look for: This well-known bird has brown upperparts, a brown crown and a red face and breast. It has a pale underside and a grey stripe from its eye to its side, between its brown and red plumage. Did you know? There are multiple subspecies of the robin, although the exact number is contested. E. r. melophilus is endemic to the UK and there is some suggestion that E. r. rubecula, the western European subspecies, has also been recorded here.
Deer are among the UK’s most elegant and familiar mammals and sightings of them in their natural habitat are always special moments, however these encounters can often be fleeting, and our views obscured.
This ID guide covers all of the native and non-native deer species that are found in the UK, and describes the key features to look out for to aid in their identification.
Deer are hoofed ruminants that comprise the family Cervidae. They are naturally found across Europe, Asia and the Americas and can be divided into two subfamilies, differentiated mostly by their bone structures. Most familiar in the UK are the Cervinae or old world deer subfamily, which includes the red, sika, fallow, Chinese water and Reeves’ muntjac. The Capreolinae (new world) sub family includes the roe deer as well as elk, reindeer and all the species found across the Americas.
Of the six species found in the UK, only the red and roe deer are truly native, although fallow deer were thought to have been first introduced to Britain in the 11th Century from the Mediterranean region, so are long established. Three other species, the sika deer, Chinese water deer and Reeves’ muntjac are all more recently naturalised within the UK.
Identification of deer can be straightforward in some situations, but some species are similar and, when not seen well, identification can be a challenge. Two of the best features to focus on for identification are the rump and the antlers, if they are visible. Except for reindeer (caribou), in which both sexes grow antlers, and the Chinese water deer and musk deer, which lack any antlers, all male (stags) deer usually grow antlers, which they use in battles to access females (hinds) during the rut. Antlers are unique to deer and a great tool to look at to identify different species. However, they are shed every year after the rut, so although a striking feature, the rump pattern of deer is perhaps the most reliable feature to use for identification.
Distribution: Widespread in Scotland and abundant in the Highlands and Islands. Elsewhere populations occur in Cumbria, Lancashire, the Peak District and Pennines, Exmoor and the Quantock Hills, the New Forest, and East Anglia. There are also small populations in Wales and Ireland.
Head and body length: 1.6–2.6 metres for a male and 1.7–2.1 metres for females
Height at shoulder: 1.14–1.22 metres.
What to look for: Both our largest species of deer and land mammal, the magnificent stags can weigh in at around 200kg making them an impressive and noticeably large species. Look for their reddish-brown coat that lacks any spots or delineation of colour. Only their rumps and tails feature a paler buff cream colour. Another characteristic of red deer are their elongated faces and large ears.
Their favoured habitat is woodland, although in Scotland they have adapted to live year-round in more open treeless landscapes. Grasses make up the bulk of their diet throughout the year, but they will also browse on a wide range of shrubs, young trees and bark, brambles, bracken and heathers. Sika deer are the most similar looking and the two species have hybridised in several regions. Sika have white spots in summer and darker brown coats in winter with shorter faces. Hybrid red and sika deer tend to resemble smaller darker red deer than they do sika.
Antlers: The antlers of mature stags are wide and branching with usually 8 sets of points per antler that curve upwards and sometimes in on themselves. Younger males have short unbranched, straighter pointed antlers.
Rump: A soft creamy colour with a very short russet-brown tail.
Distribution: Sika deer are native to Japan, Korea, Taiwan and far eastern Asia, but escaped into Britain from collections in 1860. Since their initial introduction in 1860, they have naturalised and spread to many regions. Population strongholds include Dorset and the New Forest, Lancashire and Cumbria Northern England, the Scottish borders and the Highlands.
Due to their genetic similarities to red deer, sika deer are thought to have hybridised with the native red deer in several regions, particularly in the Scottish Highlands. Sika prefer to keep to woodland cover more than red deer which have adapted to feeding in more open habitats.
Head and body length: 1.2–1.9 metres for a male and 1.1–1.6 metres for female.
Height at shoulder: 1.07–1.22 metres.
What to look for: Sika are very similar in appearance to red deer and the two species do interbreed in many regions. They are noticeably smaller than red deer and in summer they have white spots on their coats, but thick and often dark (sometimes almost black) coats in winter.
Their diet and feeding habits are very similar to red deer, with grasses and heather making up the bulk of their diet, but they will also browse on both deciduous and coniferous trees, gorse, holly bark and acorns. They are however generally less social than red deer and outside of the breeding season, both males and females can be solitary with females forming only small herds with young.
Antlers: Similar to those of red deer, but thinner, lighter coloured and less complex with usually only 4 points per antler.
Rump: A conspicuous white rump patch with a dark edge and a short white tail with a single thin dark dorsal stripe along its length.
Distribution: A woodland specialist that’s rarely found far from some woodland cover, although they are increasingly using hedgerows and scrub as cover within more agricultural and urban landscapes. They are widely distributed throughout the UK but absent from Ireland, with the greatest population densities found in Scotland.
Head and body length: 0.95–1.25 metres
Height at shoulder: 0.6–0.75 metres
What to look for: A medium sized lightweight deer with a long neck and uniform brown coat. Other features that distinguish them from the larger deer include shorter muzzles and a clean white rump patch. In summer their coats turn a rich reddish brown and appear sleeker, while in winter, the coat turns a thicker and dark more peanut brown.
They are mostly solitary but sometimes form small family groups with young, particularly during the winter. They browse a wide variety of trees, shrubs and herbs including bramble, heather, and rosebay willowherb but during the autumn will also feed on the ground on fruits, acorns and occasionally fungi.
Antlers: Short and mostly vertical, they are rarely much taller than the head, with only 2 or three points per antler. With a close view, the antlers can often appear particularly velvety or crusty at the base, depending on the season and growth stage.
Rump: The patch varies between the sexes, but both have a clean white patch and no visible tail. Males have a kidney shaped white patch, whereas females have more of a round shape.
Distribution: The Chinese water deer is a native of eastern China and Korea but has formed a naturalised population in England after escaping from Woburn Park in Bedfordshire towards the end of the 19th Century. They’re found throughout most of East Anglia and a more scattered population in the southeast-England where there is suitable habitat. The strongholds include the Norfolk broads and Cambridgeshire fens. The population trend is increasing, with over 1500 individuals and their distribution is also expanding. Interestingly, it is thought that due to population decline in their native range, the British population may now represent a significant part of their world population, despite not being a native species.
Head and body length: 1 metre
Height at shoulder: 0.7–0.95 metres.
What to look for: A small and uniformly light brown (sometimes greyish) coloured deer with large, rounded ears and a distinctive black nose. They are strongly associated with freshwater marshland habitats where they feed on coarse grasses, reeds, herbs and aquatic vegetation. Chinese water deer are solitary and secretive, preferring to keep close to cover and use both woodland close to wetlands and reedbeds. They will occasionally forage in farmland but prefer to keep close to cover.
Males have impressive and prominent downward pointing tusks instead of canine teeth that can be seen with a close-up view. These tusks are used during the rut, mostly for display purposes between rival males and to impress females. They are quite a distinctive looking deer with a more unusual almost bear-like face, although their secretive nature means that obtaining good views can be difficult.
Antlers: This species lacks any antlers.
Rump: Their rear and short tail is the same pale brown colour as the rest of their coat.
Distribution: The Reeves’ muntjac is also native to China and again its UK population derives from escaped individuals from Woburn Park in Bedfordshire from 1901. They are now abundant and found throughout southern, eastern and central England spreading rapidly into southwest-England, Wales and southern Scotland. Since 2000, a population has become established in Ireland and Northern Ireland.
Head and body length: 0.9–1 metres
Height at shoulder: 0.45–0.52 metres
What to look for: A very small, robust and stocky deer that often appears to have a hunched-over appearance due to its short neck, arched back and tendency to walk with its head facing down to the ground. The coat varies from a deep russet brown in summer to a greyer and paler brown in the winter. The face is short and squat with a characteristic set of black stripes creating a V shape on the top of the head. Male muntjac also have slightly protruding tusks but they are much shorter than those of Chinese water deer and rarely visible without a close view.
Muntjac favour dense undergrowth within both deciduous and coniferous woodland but will also thrive within urban environments with suitable cover. They browse woodland leaves and flowers during the spring and summer including some scarce woodland ground flora species. During the autumn and winter their diet switches to nuts, fungi and grasses.
Antlers: A single very short point that curves back.
Rump: The rear patch and tail are the same reddish-brown colour as the back. The tail is short but when alarmed it will often raise the tail revealing the white underside.
Fallow Deer (Dama dama)
Fallow deer by Heather Smithers via FlickrFemale fallow deer by Steve Slater via Flickr
Distribution: Introduced to Britain for hunting in the 11th Century and to Ireland in the 13th Century from the Eastern Mediterranean, the species is now found throughout England, with more scattered populations in Wales and Scotland.
Head and body length: 1.45–1.55 metres for a male and 1.30–1.45 metres for a female.
Height at shoulder: 0.7–0.95 metres
What to look for: Fallow deer are quite variable in their appearance due to their wide range of pelage (hair). Typically, most individuals have some conspicuous white spots on pale brown, fawn or gingery coats in the summer and then dark brown coats with only faint or no spots in the winter. There is a great range of variation within this species though with some individuals and populations remaining very dark or very pale throughout the year, some of which can be melanistic. Fallow are medium sized deer that are very social, often forming large herds that remain together throughout the year. Due to their numbers, they also leave conspicuous signs of their presence such as runs and tracks in frequented areas.
Their preferred habitat is open deciduous woodland but will also use farmland and woodland edge habits if there is cover close by. Fallow deer are grazers with grass forming most of their diet, although they will also eat nuts and browse on heather, holly and some deciduous trees to a lesser extent.
Antlers: Very large, broad and palmate shaped with numerous spikes.
Rump: A clean white rump with a darkoutside edge. The tail is long and appears mostly black because of a long black stripe that runs down the course of its length, but the underside is clean white.
Handbook of Western Palearctic Birds: Passerines (2-Volume Set)
Guide to Winter Coastal Birds
