We have recently received the sad news of the passing of James Lovelock, an environmentalist, chemist, futurist and the creator of the Gaia hypothesis.
Born in 1919, he attended the University of Manchester at age 21 and graduated with a PhD from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine in 1948, becoming an independent scientist in 1961. He had since been awarded honorary degrees from several institutions, including the University of Exeter, Stockholm University and the University of Colorado Boulder. His career was varied, from travelling aboard the research vessel RRS Shackleton to working on developing scientific instruments for NASA, and even performing cryopreservation experiments.
Lovelock was the first person to detect Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in the atmosphere after developing an electron capture detector in the late 1960s. CFCs are nontoxic chemicals used in the manufacturing of products such as aerosol sprays, and are used as solvents and refrigerants. Their role in the depletion of the ozone layer led to their inclusion in the Montreal Protocol, which worked to phase out several substances to protect the ozone layer. During his time aboard the RRS Shackleton, Lovelock measured the concentration of CFC-11 from the northern hemisphere to the Antarctic. These experiments provided the first useful data on the widespread presence of CFCs in the atmosphere, though the damage these cause was not discovered until the 1970s, by Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina.
James Lovelock was also known for his Gaia hypothesis. This hypothesis, first created in the 1960s, proposed that the complex interacting system of the Earth’s biotic and abiotic parts could be considered as a single organism. Drawing from research by Alfred C. Redfield and G. Evelyn Hutchinson, Lovelock formulated that living organisms interact with the non-living environment to form a synergistic and self-regulating complex system, by co-evolving with their environment. He suggested that the whole system, including the biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and pedosphere, seeks an environment optimal for life. This evolution is facilitated through a cybernetic feedback system that is unconsciously operated by the biota, leading to a final ‘state’ of full homeostasis.
While the Gaia hypothesis is generally accepted by many in the environmentalist community, there has been some criticism, particularly from the scientific community. Lovelock later made revisions to the hypothesis to clarify that there was no conscious purpose within this self-regulating system and to bring the hypothesis into alignment with ideas from other fields, such as systems ecology. This had reduced criticism, but there still remains scepticism from the scientific community.
Lovelock wrote more than 200 scientific papers as well as a number of books on a variety of topics within chemistry, environmentalism, geophysiology, climate change and more. Lovelock’s work has been recognised a number of times, receiving awards such as the Tswett Medal in 1975, the Dr A. H. Heineken Prize for Environmental Sciences in 1990 and the Royal Geographical Society Discovery Lifetime Award in 2001. He was also appointed a member of the Commander of the Order of the Britsh Empire for services to the study of Science and the Atmosphere in 1990 and a member of the Order of the Companions of Honour for services to Global Environmental Science in 2003. In 2006, he was awarded the Wollaston Medal, an achievement also received by Charles Darwin.
Fen, Bog & Swamp, from Pulitzer Prize winning author Annie Proulx, is a wide ranging book that meanders through the subject of wetlands on a journey which encompasses history, biology, language, culture, art and literature. Written in a passionate and lyrical voice, the book is not only a thorough exploration of these ecosystems, but also a war cry in their defence, although one that at times feels dampened by the assumption of inevitable defeat. This is echoed in a statement in which she describes her intentions behind the writings and research: “Before the last wetlands disappear I wanted to know more about this world we are losing. What was a world of fens, bogs and swamps and what meaning did these peatlands have…”.
The book is arranged into four loose parts: an introduction of “discursive thoughts on wetlands”, followed by individual chapters covering fens, bogs and swamps. Beginning the text with a description of a fond yet distant memory of walking through a swamp with her mother as a child in 1930s Connecticut, which she describes as her “first thrill of entering terra incognita”, Proulx goes on to bemoan the disinterest of modern humans in “seeing slow and subtle change” and the “slow metamorphoses of the natural world”. In our fast-paced lives in which speed and efficiency are hailed as the twin gods of progress, there are few who can, or desire to, repetitively observe the same flowers, trees or waters, week after week, season after season, or to appreciate the myriad yet microscopic ways in which they change. For this reason, evidence for a warming climate and its impending crisis have been easy to ignore until the impacts are so visible that they can no longer be shuffled under the carpet.
Strumpshaw Fen. Image by Michael John Button via Flickr.
As a reader based in Britain, I found the section on fens to be of particular interest, despite the fact that their story is ultimately one of destruction and decline. These days it is hard to imagine a Britain in which 6% of the land was wetland, all of which provided a “source of wealth that could hardly be surpassed by any other natural environment”. Now, in modern Britain, less than 1% of the original fenlands remain: a mere fragment of this once great and diverse habitat.
Proulx’ wonderful descriptions of the people who lived in the fens and how an intimate knowledge of its creeks, rivers and mudflats allowed them to thrive in this challenging landscape are particularly pleasing. Using descriptions of artwork and quotations from literature (such as the Moorlandschaften photographs of Wolfgang Bartels and Gertrude Jekyll’s wonderful vignette on the use of rush-lights) Proulx paints a vivid picture, not only of the historical landscape, but also of the lives of the people inhabiting them.
In fact, these diversions into the lives of the people who have impacted and been impacted by wetlands occur frequently throughout the text, and are used to great effect to provide an insight into changing minds and cultures. From stories of the 16th century Spanish explorers to those of naturalist Henry Thoreau and botanist William Bartram, the book is littered with potted biographies that tell the stories of the people who were fascinated by these landscapes, as well as the darker sides of exploitation and greed.
Through the telling of these stories, it becomes apparent that fens, bogs and swamps have long been derided by humans. This is exemplified by the pre-15th century British fen dwellers who were “literally and metaphorically looked down on” by the upland people in a manner that was reflected in their view of the fenlands themselves. Also mirrored in the attitude of European settlers in the US who despised the swamps for slowing down movement and progress and limiting productive agriculture, wetlands throughout the world have consistently been viewed as ‘waste, unproductive’ areas, in need of ‘improvement’.
Time and time again we have blundered around in the name of progress, attempting to drain, farm, reforest and develop these regions with little knowledge of how to maintain them afterwards, or even whether this is possible. Indeed, as is now apparent in areas such as New Orleans and Chicago, where the water is slowly taking back the land, the fight against nature is likely to be a long drawn-out game that we are unable to win.
As you might expect from someone whose life has been concerned with words, Proulx pays a lot of attention to the language surrounding fens, bogs and swamps. Highlighting such examples as the equally pleasing Pocosin (swamp) or Muskeg (bog), she also draws parallels between the loss of these habitats and the loss of the language that we can usefully use to describe them. In a manner that has also been highlighted by writers such as Robert MacFarlane in Landmarks and The Lost Words, it seems that this is a two way street: as we lose the habitats, we also chip away at the list of nouns and adjectives that are used to describe them; but equally, with the loss of this nuanced language, we also begin a process of forgetting and dismissing the landscapes themselves.
I came away from reading this book with a new appreciation of fens, bogs and swamps, but also saddened by the fact that, as Oliver Rackham stated, the long history of wetlands is ultimately a story of their destruction. As Proulx simply states in her final lines, in an echo of those words from Norman Maclean’s A River Runs Through It, perhaps the time is coming when we will all be “haunted by waters”.
Fen, Bog & Swamp: A Short History of Peatland Destruction and Its Role in the Climate Crisis is available for pre-order from NHBS and is due for publication in September 2022.
Seeing dragonflies swoop over water is a quintessential sign that summer is upon us. When in flight their movements are mesmerising – using their two sets of wings either in synchrony or beating separately, they are able to fly in any direction they choose, altering their speed and movement instantly in mid-flight to create a dance that is unlike any other organism. But while the flying adults are frequently seen during the warmer months, many of us know very little about their life during the rest of the year.
In this article we will take a look at the dragonfly life cycle, explore how climate change and other threats are affecting dragonfly populations globally, and offer some tips on how to attract dragonflies to your garden.
Dragonfly life history
Dragonflies belong to the order Odonata within the sub-order Anisoptera (meaning ‘unequal-winged’). This order is also home to the closely-related damselflies (sub-order Zygoptera). Although at first glance dragonflies and damselflies appear similar, dragonflies are usually larger and bulkier with significantly larger eyes when compared to the slightly built and rather delicate damsels. When at rest dragonflies hold their wings open whereas damsels keep theirs closed, next to the body.
There are three distinct phases in the dragonfly life cycle: egg, nymph (larva) and adult.
Dragonflies breed in or on water bodies such as marshes, swamps, ponds, pools and rivers; after mating the female will lay hundreds of eggs over the course of several days or months. Some species lay their eggs inside plant material, either on the surface of the water or submerged. Others encase their eggs in a jelly-like substance and deposit them directly into the water. Eggs usually hatch within a few weeks, although some remain in the water throughout the colder months and hatch the following spring.
The first larva that hatches from the egg is known as a prolarva, and this very quickly moults into the first proper larval stage. The larvae, or nymphs, then proceed to moult a further 5–14 times – typically taking place over 1–2 years, although it can be as long as five years in species such as the Golden-Ringed Dragonfly. Nymphs continue to live in the water and are voracious eaters, feeding on insect larvae, crustaceans, worms, snails, tadpoles and even small fish.
Southern Hawker undergoing the final moult from nymph to winged adult. Image by John Copley via Flickr.
Unlike many other flying insects, such as butterflies and moths, the final moult of the dragonfly does not feature a pupal stage – known as incomplete metamorphosis. This moult takes place out of the water where the winged adult emerges from the nymph skin, leaving behind an exuvia, or skin cast. A period of time is then spent feeding away from the water before the adult dragonfly returns to breed and begin the cycle again. Life expectancy of the adult dragonfly is short – typically only 1–2 weeks, although some will live for up to 5–6 weeks.
Conservation and climate change
An IUCN update in December 2021 stated that the destruction of wetlands is driving a worldwide decline in dragonflies. Despite their high ecological value, marshes, swamps and boggy areas continue to be degraded by intensified agriculture and urbanisation and, along with longer periods of drought, this is vastly reducing the amount of habitat in which dragonflies and damselflies can survive.
Clean water is also paramount for dragonfly nymphs – so much so that their presence is regarded as an useful indicator of wetland health. Pollution of waterways and water bodies by pesticides and effluent are problematic and are compounding the issue of habitat loss.
In their favour is the fact that dragonflies are highly mobile and appear to colonise new habitats relatively rapidly. With global temperatures on the rise, we are already seeing species shift to higher latitudes and altitudes. Even in the UK, Mediterranean migrants are being recorded with increasing frequency.
Which dragonflies are you most likely to see?
There are just under 30 species of dragonfly living in the UK. Identification of these is primarily achieved using the patterns and colouration of the thorax and abdomen, although a few similar species require the finer details, such as leg colour, to be examined.
Or why not check out this interactive map from the British Dragonfly Society where you can search for good places to look for dragonflies near you. You can also filter the results by species if you’re looking for something specific.
Dragonflies can often be found perching in a sunny spot in the morning, warming their wing muscles before their first flight. Image by Ian Preston via Flickr.
How to attract dragonflies to your garden
Water is an integral part of the dragonfly life cycle, so having a pond in your garden is by far the best way to attract them. If you only have a small outdoor space then sinking a bucket or trough into the ground is a low-cost and space-efficient solution. A larger pond with both floating and emergent vegetation, however, will provide dragonflies with somewhere to lay their eggs and for the nymphs to live once they have hatched. It is important to have some vegetation which extends out of the pond as this will allow nymphs to leave the water when they are ready to undergo the final moult into their adult, winged form. Ponds with carnivorous fish or those used by waterfowl will be less useful as these will both prey on the dragonfly larvae.
Having a variety of flowers and herbs growing nearby will help to attract other insects which the dragonflies will feed on. Providing some canes or small stakes will also give them a place to perch – this is particularly important in the morning when dragonflies need to spend time basking in the sun before their wing muscles are warm enough for flight.
Fun facts
• Dragonflies see the world in colour and can detect ultraviolet as well as blue, green and red.
• Dragonflies have been around for 300 million years. Their ancestors were some of the largest insects ever to have existed – some had wingspans of up to 80cm!
• Dragonflies are true acrobats and can fly both upside down and backwards.
• Although they can live for up to five or six years, dragonflies only spend a tiny portion of this time – between a week and two months – as the colourful flying adults that we recognise. The majority of their lives are spent in the water as nymphs (larvae).
Further reading and equipment
Field Guide to the Dragonflies of Britain and Europe
A superb identification guide with identification texts and distribution maps as well as an introduction to larvae identification. Each species is lavishly illustrated with artworks of males, females and variations, as well as close-ups of important identifying characters.
Britain’s Dragonflies: A Field Guide to the Damselflies and Dragonflies of Great Britain and Ireland
Written by two of Britain’s foremost dragonfly experts, this excellent guide is focused on the identification of both adults and larvae. It features hundreds of stunning images and identification charts covering all 57 resident, migrant and former breeding species, and six potential vagrants.
Guide to Dragonflies and Damselflies of Britain
This handy and affordable fold-out guide from the Field Studies Council features 28 dragonfly and 16 damselfly species and is a useful aid to identifying them in the field, often while in flight. It is a perfect size to pack into a bag while out and about and is a great choice for beginners.
The European Parliament has voted to ban ‘fly shooting’ fishing in a part of the Channel. This technique, also known as demersal seigning, involves towing weighted ropes along the seabed at either end of a net, which then encircles and captures entire shoals of fish. Fly shooter vessels catch up to 11 times more fish than inshore fishing vessels and have a devastating effect on the marine ecosystem, biodiversity and local fishers. This decision is seen as a victory for small-scale fishers but it will also help reduce the damage caused to the seabed and marine ecosystems in the Channel.
UK households recycle only 12% of single-use plastics, disposing of nearly 100 billion pieces of plastic packaging a year. A new survey by Greenpeace is one of the largest voluntary research projects on the scale of plastic waste and it asked households to count their plastic waste for one week in May. Almost 250,000 people from around 100,000 households took part and showed that the largest proportion of plastic waste was from food and drink packaging at 83%. The most common item was fruit and vegetable packaging. On average, each household threw away 66 pieces of plastic packaging in one week.
Pollution
The Environment Agency (EA) is calling for water company bosses to be jailed for serious pollution. Shocking levels of pollution occurred in the last year, with 62 serious incidents of pollution in 2021. The EA has stated that chief executives and board members of companies responsible for the most serious incidents should be jailed and that courts should impose much higher fines. Only three water companies received the highest rating of four stars for their pollution performance. The rating takes into account the number and severity of pollution incidents, as well as self-reporting and the use and disposal methods of sewage sludge. Two companies, Southern Water and South West Water, were given the lowest rating of one star.
Conservation
3D printed reefs are being used to restore marine biodiversity. WWF Denmark and Ørsted have been testing how structures made of 70% sand and 30% pozzolanic cement (a combination of volcanic ash and portland cement) could be used to create new habitats for fish and other wildlife in the Kattegat strait between Denmark and Sweden. Twelve of these structures have been deployed between the wind turbines at Anholt Offshore Wind Farm, and it is hoped that they will help reverse the decline of cod stock in the Kattegat.
Bison have been released into the wild in the UK. Wild bison are ecosystem engineers and can help to restore biodiversity in woodlands through their natural behaviours, such as felling trees by rubbing against them and grazing. This is hoped to provide a nature-based solution to tackling the climate and biodiversity crisis. The releases are part of a five-year project led by Kent Wildlife Trust and the Wildwood Trust. The next steps include introducing Exmoor ponies, Iron Age pigs and Longhorn cattle.
Contraceptives are being given to grey squirrels in an attempt to control their population and allow red squirrel populations to improve. Grey squirrels are a non-native species first introduced from North America in the 19th century. They cause significant damage to UK woodlands as they strip the bark from trees, and they tend to target younger trees that are typically between 10-50 years old, either killing them or maiming them and leaving them vulnerable to pests and diseases. Culling has not been found to be a sufficient control measure, therefore it is thought that using contraceptives, which have longer-lasting effects, may be more effective.
Young Maori divers are hunting invasive crown-of-thorns starfish to save coral reefs. The species, also known as taramea, feed on coral reefs and, when there are too many individuals, can destroy reef habitats. Korero O Te `Orau, a local environmental organisation, has been training young Maori people in scuba diving to remove taramea from the reef and bury them inland. The recent outbreak of this species around the island of Rarotonga in the Cook Islands could jeopardize the survival of the surrounding coral reef if not tackled properly. More than 3,700 taramea have been collected so far.
Research
Great white sharks might change their colour when hunting prey. Researchers conducted experiments off of South Africa using a specially designed colour board with white, grey and black panels. Each shark was photographed as it jumped out of the water at the panels, with the experiment being repeated throughout the day. One particular shark appeared to be both dark grey and a much lighter grey at different times. The results were verified using computer software to correct for variables such as weather, light levels and camera settings. While the research has not yet been validated and published in a scientific journal, experts are still excited about the results.
We are pleased to announce that we are now able to resume manufacturing the NHBS Harp Trap! We have had the time to be able to think about the design of the trap and tweak it to make it easier to use. At first glance, this compactly packed harp trap may look as though it would be tricky to set up, but rest assured that, with the use of two people, you’ll be able to easily assemble this trap, even in the dark. This blog provides a step-by-step guide to how to set up and disassemble the trap. If you are interested in finding out more general information about the NHBS Harp Trap, the only harp trap that is commercially produced in Europe, and its use, please check out the blog we wrote when we first launched the trap.
Please note that the NHBS Harp Trap is a made-to-order item so please contact us if you would like to purchase one and we will be happy to advise the current lead time.
The NHBS Harp Trap: Instructions
Please follow these instructions for correct assembly and disassembly. We recommend that this is carried out by two people.
Assembly
1. Carefully remove the harp trap from its carry bag and sit it upright on the floor still wrapped up. Remove the legs and upright support poles from on top of the trap.
2. Insert the legs at either end of the frame (it is easiest to do this one end at a time). Hand tighten the top thumb screws (A). The lower thumb screws (b) are for extending the legs to make the trap higher or balanced if on uneven ground; the leg lengths can be adjusted as needed after the trap is assembled.
3. Undo the material ties at the bottom of the trap (C) to unroll the green catch bag flap so that it is laid out on the floor (D).
4. Fully open out the catch bag assembly arms to their full width (D).
5. Remove the upper carriage securing pin by loosening the upright support pole thumb screws (E). Where the upper carriage securing pins have been removed, insert upright support poles and allow them to rest on the ground. Ensure that the fixing points (thumb screws) on the upright support poles are facing each other.
6. Release the spring locking pins from both ends of the trap by pulling the leaver out and rotate it 90° to lock in open position (F).
7. Remove the thumb screw from the top of each upright support pole and slowly raise the top line carriage, keeping both ends level and watching closely to ensure that the lines do not become jammed. Once the carriage reaches the fixing point secure with upright support pole thumb screws.
8. Once you are confident that the top carriage is secure, slowly lift the upright support poles in unison again, and carefully watch the lines to ensure that none get caught. Keep raising until the lines become taut. Engage both spring locking pins in the bottom carrier (reverse of F), check the tension is even at both ends of the trap and when happy tighten the two thumb screws at the base of the upright support poles evenly at both ends to secure.
9. If required, peg out the guy ropes for extra stability.
Disassembly
1. If guy ropes have been used pull out the red pegs and store them carefully. Now wind up the guy ropes.
2. While holding on to the upright support poles (one person at each end), loosen the thumb screws at the base of the upright support poles, holding them in position and allow them to lower slightly. Disengage the spring locking pins on each end (as in F) and start to wind the lower line carrier. Keep lowering the upright support poles slowly and evenly while winding the line carrier until the upright support poles reach the floor.
Care must be taken to not allow the line to come free off the end of the line carrier as this may result in snagging of the lines and subsequent breakage – guiding the lines with your hand/arm while lowering is essential (H).
3. With the upright support poles resting on the ground, remove the top carriage securing thumb screws and allow the line carrier to lower, guiding the line with your hand/arm and winding as you go (H). Return the top line carrier thumb screws back to the storage points in the upright support poles.
4. Once the top carriage has been fully lowered, engage the spring locking pins, remove the upright support poles, and secure the top carriage back into storage position using the upper carriage securing pin and tighten the thumb screws to secure in place (reverse of E).
5. Fold the arms of the catch bag assembly inwards as far as they will go, wrap the bag around the trap and tie the bottom attached material straps to secure in place.
6. Undo the top thumb screws that are securing the legs and remove each leg. For safekeeping, ensure that the thumb screws are tightened once the legs have been removed.
7. Fully collapse each leg to its minimum length and tighten with thumb screws.
8. Place the upright support poles and legs back on top of the closed trap and secure them in place using the attached material ties at either end. Carefully place the trap and accessories bag back in the carry bag safely ready for next time.
Spares and accessories included:
4x Guy rope 5m
4x Red pegs
1x Roll of nylon string
1x Accessories bag
The NHBS Harp Trap is available on the NHBS website. The trap is available as a three-bank trap as standard, but please contact our Workshop Team to discuss your requirements if you would like a bespoke two or four-bank trap, or if you would like a trap that has the ability to be suspended from a support.
To view the full range of NHBS manufactured items, along with other ranges of survey equipment, visit www.nhbs.com. If you have any questions on the NHBS Harp Trap or would like some advice on the best survey equipment for you then please contact us via email at customer.services@nhbs.com or phone on 01803 865913.
Managing habitats for the benefit of wildlife can often contradict climate priorities. In the Summer 2022 issue of Conservation Land Management (CLM), Malcolm Ausden and Rob Field describe how different habitats and their maintenance impact the climate, and highlight the management practices that provide the greatest climate benefits. Here you can read a summary of the article.
Quantifying the impacts of habitat management on the climate
The influence of different habitats and their management on the climate can be measured by estimating the net flux of the most important greenhouse gases (GHGs): carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. The contribution of the latter two is usually expressed in terms of the amount of CO2 needed to produce the same level of warming (tonnes of CO2 equivalent; t CO2e), as determined by global warming potential (GWP) of the different gases. A positive GWP indicates a positive warming effect, whereas a negative GWP shows a cooling effect. GWP values are usually expressed in comparison to the warming potential of CO2 over 100 years.
The effects of conservation land management on GHG flux
In the full CLM article, the authors describe the GHG flux of the main types of habitats in Britain, and how this is affected by conservation management. The habitats included are listed below, starting with those that produce the greatest overall warming effect on the climate, and finishing with those that have a cooling effect.
Intensive arable on organic soil
Intensive grassland on organic soil
Eutrophic/mesotrophic open water
Lowland wet grassland on organic soil
Intensive arable on mineral soil (incl. emissions from farming operations)
Bare peat
Oligotrophic open water
Heather-dominated drained bog
Intensive arable on mineral soil (excl. emissions from farming operations)
Lowland and upland heathland
Unimproved low-input grassland (incl. LWG on mineral soil)
Near-natural bog
Improved grassland (excl. emissions from farming/livestock operations)
Near-natural fen
Mudflat
Conifer plantation on mineral soil (managed on a 55-year-rotation)
Saltmarsh
Dry broadleaved woodland (mean over first 100 years)
Wet woodland
Dry broadleaved woodland (mean over first 30 years)
Conifer plantations can have a cooling effect on the climate if grown on mineral soil and managed on a 55-year-rotation. Image by Andrew Arch via Flickr.
Intensive arable on organic soil (soils derived from peat) produces the biggest warming effect per unit area, as large quantities of CO2 are released via oxidation of dried-out peat that is repeatedly exposed during the cultivation process. The manufacture and use of nitrate fertilisers and the use of machinery also contributes to significant emissions of GHGs. At the other end of the spectrum is dry broadleaved woodland, particularly during the first 30 years after its establishment. The GHG flux of woodland fluctuates depending on its age, species composition, the density and growth rate of trees, and management. For unmanaged woodland, the net uptake of CO2 is low while trees are small, and planting of trees can even lead to a net release of CO2 as a result of soil disturbance. The rate of CO2 uptake increases during the main growth stage of the trees, slowing as they mature, although carbon does continue to accumulate in the soil.
Ways to benefit both the climate and wildlife
Conservation management can provide climate benefits either by reducing the amount of GHGs released into the atmosphere, or by actively removing them (i.e. carbon sequestration). For example, rewetting drained peatland reduces, and should eventually stop, the release of CO2 that occurs through the drying out and oxidation of peat. Although there is an initial release of methane after rewetting, accumulation of carbon in the peat will resume. The climate benefits per unit area of wet peatland are surprisingly low compared to some other types of habitat, but due to the large quantities of carbon stored within the vast expanse of peat in upland Britain, rewetting drained areas is an incredibly important measure to prevent the ongoing release of CO2, and will also provide a number of benefits for wildlife.
On organic soils used for arable, the greatest climate benefits per unit area come by creating wet woodland, as this prevents the oxidation of the peat and allows carbon to accumulate during tree growth. There are, however, limited opportunities to create new wet woodland on ex-arable organic soils and to keep them adequately saturated. The next best option is the creation of swamp/fen, which offers far greater climate benefits than agriculturally drained peat soils, even though the habitat itself has an overall GWP100 near to zero.
Swamp/fens offer far greater climate benefits than agriculturally drained peat soils. Image by Liz West via Flickr
The authors look at multiple management approaches and describe the climate benefits of different types of habitat restoration and creation. All the methods listed below are beneficial for the climate, and are ordered here by the magnitude of their cooling effect, from the least to the greatest.
Creating swamp/fen on ex-arable on mineral soil
Rewetting drained bog
Creating lowland wet grassland on ex-arable on mineral soil
Creating intertidal habitat on ex-arable on mineral soil
Establishing broadleaved woodland on ex-arable on mineral soil
Creating lowland wet grassland on drained grassland on organic soil
Creating swamp/fen on drained grassland on organic soil
Creating lowland wet grassland on ex-arable on organic soil
Creating swamp/fen on ex-arable on organic soil
Creating wet woodland on ex-arable on organic soil
A large aspect of the management of semi-natural habitats involves cutting and clearing vegetation in order to maintain a particular vegetation structure and to slow or reverse succession. But this means that the amount of carbon accumulated in the soil and vegetation is reduced. In addition, the removal of vegetation is often carried out by using domestic livestock, which release large quantities of methane, by machinery, which is often powered by fossil fuel or biofuel and releases CO2, or by burning, which also releases CO2.
Domestic livestock release large quantities of methane. Image by USDA NRCS Montana via Flickr
But there are changes that can be made to management that can help contribute to a habitat’s cooling effect. For example, the amount of vegetation that is removed from a site can be reduced to allow more carbon to be stored in the vegetation or soil. In some instances this can mean allowing a site, such as a swamp/fen, to develop into woodland or scrub. This can contradict conservation goals where maintaining an early successional habitat is the priority, but can be an option for sites that are currently poor for wildlife.
Another option is to change the method used to clear the vegetation. One way that this can be achieved is by swapping livestock for grazers that release less methane per quantity of vegetation removed. Ponies, for example, produce much lower levels of methane compared to cattle and sheep, although before changing the type of livestock it is important to understand that different livestock have different effects on vegetation structure and composition. In the full article, the authors explore this and other changes that site owners can make to increase the cooling effect of different habitats and their management.
It can be difficult for conservationists and land managers to know how to best manage a site in the interest of both nature conservation and the climate, and in many cases there are trade-offs between maximising the benefits for the two. But as the article demonstrates, there are restoration approaches that can be used that provide significant climate and conservation benefits, and it is helpful to consider and quantify the net flux of GHGs before implementing any changes to conservation management plans.
Other articles featured in the Summer 2022 issue include:
Saltmarsh restoration through flash re-creation
Measuring conservation success on farmland
Viewpoint: Dams without beavers: could beaver dam analogues yield benefits in the UK?
In this and every issue you can expect to see Briefing, keeping you up to date with the latest training courses, events and publications, and On the ground which provides helpful tips or updates on products relevant to land management. Other features that regularly appear in CLM include Viewpoint, a similar length to our main articles, but here authors can voice their own views on various conservation issues, and Review, which can include letters from readers or updates from our authors.
CLM is published four times a year in March, June, September and December, and is available by subscription only, delivered straight to your door. Subscriptions start from £22 per year. Previous back issues are also available to purchase individually (subject to availability).
If you are involved in a conservation project and think your experiences could be useful to other practitioners, we would love to hear from you. If you are interested in writing for CLM feel free to contact us – we will be happy to discuss your ideas with you.
For those of us living where there are four distinct seasons, summer is the period of long, warmer days where the skies, fields, lakes and mountains are alive with the busy activities of plants and animals at the peak of their growing year. Most of the animals that have hatched or been born earlier this year will be beginning to fend for themselves, while many plant species will be coming to the end of their flowering period and preparing to produce seed in an effort to ensure their survival and proliferation.
The combination of warmer weather and longer daylight hours makes this the perfect time to get out and about and experience the beauty and complexity of the natural world.
This is the second in our seasonal phenology series where you can explore a carefully chosen collection of ID blogs, books, equipment and events, all designed to help you make the most of a summer outside. Check out our spring blog and don’t forget to look out for our autumn blog in September.
Identification guides:
What you might see:
• Hedgerows and verges are still home to lots of flowering plants, although the frothy drifts of cow parsley are now coming to an end. Honeysuckle can be seen blooming from June, providing a night-time food source for moths such as the Elephant Hawkmoth (Deilephila elpenor).
• Bee orchids (Ophrys apifera) will flower briefly in June and July on dry, chalk and limestone grasslands, while sea cliffs will be adorned with the delicate blush of sea thrift (Armeria maritima) from April to October.
• Auks, such as Razorbills (Alca torda), Guillemot (Uria aalge), Puffins (Fratercula arctica) and Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis), come to their cliff nests in spring to lay their eggs. They can still be seen (and heard!) throughout the summer as they make frequent trips out to sea to catch food for their young. Further inland, summer visitors such as Redstart (Phoenicurus phoenicurus), Wood Warblers (Phylloscopus sibilatrix) and Pied Flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca) are wonderful to catch a glimpse of.
• June to August is an important time for ladybirds. During this period, mated females will lay their eggs which then hatch into larvae and form pupae through a series of four stages, or ‘instars’. Adult ladybirds emerge from the pupae in August.
• Wasps, bumblebees, honeybees and butterflies are all active in the summer and will feed as much as possible while the weather is fine. Small Tortoiseshell (Aglais urticae) and Red Admiral (Vanessa atalanta) butterflies can both be frequently seen around nettles where they like to lay their eggs.
• Frogs and toads spend their days keeping cool in damp and shady areas and are often found in overgrown areas of the garden during the summer. This year’s froglets and toadlets will remain in the water until late summer.
• The summer months are a great time to spot bats hunting for insects during the dusk and dawn hours. Female bats give birth to their young in June and within three weeks these juveniles will be learning to fly themselves. By August the youngsters will no longer need their mother’s milk and will be hunting for their own food.
Field Guide to the Moths of Great Britain and Ireland
This beautifully illustrated and comprehensive field guide shows moths in their natural resting postures. It also includes paintings of different forms, underwings and other details to help with identification.
Britain’s Reptiles and Amphibians: A Guide to the Reptiles and Amphibians of Great Britain, Ireland and the Channel Islands
This detailed guide to the reptiles and amphibians of Britain, Ireland and the Channel Isles is designed to help anyone identify a lizard, snake, turtle, tortoise, terrapin, frog, toad or newt with confidence.
The Wild Flower Key: How to Identify Wild Flowers, Trees and Shrubs in Britain and Ireland
This essential wild flower guide is packed with identification tips and high-quality illustrations, as well as innovative features designed to assist beginners. The text aims to be as useful as possible for those working in conservation and includes a compilation of the latest research on ancient woodland indicator plants.
NHBS Moth Trap
A lightweight and highly portable trap, tested and approved by Butterfly Conservation. This mains-powered trap runs a single 20W blacklight bulb (included) and comes supplied with a 4.5m power lead with UK plug.
Kite Ursus Binoculars
These affordable binoculars have been designed for everyday use and have a robust housing, great field of view and produce a bright, colour-balanced image.
Magenta Bat 5 Bat Detector
A handheld super-heterodyne bat detector with an illuminated easy-to-read LCD frequency display. This fantastic entry-level detector converts ultrasonic bat calls into a sound that is audible to humans, allowing you to listen to and identify the bats flying around you.
The US Supreme Court has limited the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) ability to curb power plant emissions, impacting America’s attempts to fight climate change.The Supreme Court ruled that the Clean Air Act does not give the EPA broad authority to regulate greenhouse gas emissions from power plants. The Biden administration plans to combat climate change by cutting the nation’s greenhouse gas emissions in half by the end of the decade and aiming for an emissions-free power sector by 2035. Now, the decision to curb power plant emissions must be taken by Congress itself, or “an agency acting pursuant to a clear delegation from that representative body.”
In other climate news, both Spain and Portugal are suffering the driest climate for at least 1,200 years, according to new research. Azores highs, high-pressure systems off the coast that blocks wet weather fronts in winter, have dramatically increased since 1980, pushing wet weather northwards. This is having severe implications for both food production and tourism. This change has been conclusively linked to increased anthropogenic emissions.
Scientists have warned Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) against watering down EU deforestation laws. Last week, a draft regulation was rewritten to define ‘forest degradation’ as the replacement of primary forests by plantations or other wooded land. As primary forests account for only 3.1m hectares of 159m hectares of overall forest, this definition would severely limit the law’s reach to only 2% of the total forest area. A letter from more than 50 scientists has stated that any exclusion of forest degradation from the law would undermine the EU’s desire for Europe to “become the first climate-neutral continent by 2050.”
Conservation
Bird flu has been confirmed at the UK’s only breeding colony of roseate terns in Northumberland. This “new virulent” form of bird flu is having a devastating impact on a number of wild bird species, with hundreds of seabirds found dead on Coquet Island. There are now calls for the government to develop and implement a national response plan for bird flu in wild birds, including clarity for collecting dead birds and a long-term plan for future threats. This disease is affecting all four species of tern on the island, as well as eider ducks, black-headed gulls and large gulls. The island is also home to nesting puffins but, so far, no puffin deaths have been recorded.
A £4.1m scheme has been revealed to improve wildlife habitats and alleviate flooding alongside roads in Stafford. The Stafford Brooks Project will target 25 locations near local rivers and streams to address the environmental impact of roads. Space will be created for wildflowers, trees and wildlife in areas where habitats have been impacted by activities from previous road building. New wetlands and reed beds are also being designed to help filter polluted run-off from roads, which can significantly impact river health.
Researchers are satellite-tracking whale sharks to explore the factors influencing their behaviour in the coastal waters of the Panamanian Pacific, including migratory and feeding behaviours. Rhincodon typus is vulnerable to population declines due to their slow maturation and they face a number of threats from humans, including entanglement in fishing nets and boat strikes. This study has shown that whale sharks spend more than 77% of their time in areas without any protection, indicating that conservation measures should go beyond the creation of local marine protected areas.
A new study, part-funded by The Mammal Society, has revealed the presence of plastic consumption in small mammals. More than 261 faecal samples were analysed to assess the exposure of seven terrestrial UK mammals to plastics. Four species, the European hedgehog, wood mouse, field vole and brown rat all had plastic polymers detected within their faecal samples. This ingestion was shown to occur across species of differing dietary habits and locations, confirming that plastic consumption is a widespread issue.
New Discoveries
A new giant water lily species has just been discovered, despite being in the archives of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for 177 years. Now holding the record as the world’s largest water lily, with its leaves growing more than 3m wide, the Victoria boliviana grows in a single water basin in part of the Amazon river system in Bolivia. It was long suspected to be different from the two other known giant species, V. amazonica and V. cruziana, but it was only when Kew grew all three side-by-side under exactly the same conditions that they could clearly see V. boliviana was totally different.
Policy
Singapore strengthened a law on Monday 4th July to stamp out wildlife trafficking, with stiffer penalties for those found guilty. The changes to the Endangered Species (Import and Export) Act include tripling the maximum jail term for individuals from two to six years and increasing the maximum fine from $50,000 (~£29,550) per species to $100,000 (~£59,100) per specimen. Companies involved in the trafficking of endangered species will also face higher fines and prison sentences, according to the Senior Minister of State for National Development, Tan Kiat How.
In the lead up to the 26th UN Climate Change Conference of the Parties (COP26) in November of last year, as well as the months that have followed, we have been writing a series of articles looking at some of the toughest global climate crisis challenges that we are currently facing. This post looks at the intensification of agricultural practices and how this can both be exacerbated by and contribute to climate change.
Farmer applying pre-emergence sprays. Chafer Machinery via Flickr
What is agricultural intensification?
Our global population is increasing year on year and is predicted to hit 10 billion by 2057. Agricultural production has to keep pace with the resource demands of this growing population. There are two main ways this can occur: an increase in the amount of land used for agricultural purposes or an increase in the yield from land already used through improvements or increased use of resources such as technology, fertilisers, labour, pesticides or scientific plant knowledge.
What are the impacts of land-use change?
Habitat destruction is considered one of the main causes of animal extinctions worldwide, and much of this destruction is due to clearing land for agriculture. Intensively managed agricultural land is far less valuable for the environment than natural habitats such as wetlands and forests. Intensively managed farmlands support less diverse and abundant species, sequester less carbon dioxide and suffer from increased water loss and soil erosion. Therefore, the increase in agricultural areas can contribute to climate change and worsen our ability to mitigate its effects.
Agricultural expansion and land clearing are pushed right up to Bwindi Impenetrable National Park boundaries in Uganda. USAID Biodiversity and Forestry via Flickr
What is the impact of increasing yields?
Intensification of agricultural management practices to increase yield includes an increase in the use of chemicals such as fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides, all of which can negatively impact wildlife, soil and nearby water quality. The artificial introduction of nutrients can be detrimental to the environment, particularly if it reaches waterways through run-off, as it can lead to algae blooms that can deplete aquatic oxygen levels.
Herbicides and pesticides have a direct impact on both target and non-target species, potentially disrupting populations and affecting whole ecosystems. Species can also be impacted through trophic poisoning, as the impacts of these chemicals can be heightened through biomagnification, where toxins build up in the food chain in greater and greater concentrations at each trophic level. This often results in the loss of top consumers which can destabilise ecosystems.
Another way to increase yield is by utilising as much of the existing agricultural land as possible. This, however, reduces the areas of non-crop species, such as trees and hedgerows. These areas represent essential diversity in plant species, helping to support a wide variety of fauna by providing food, shelter and breeding areas. Losing these areas reduces the variety and abundance of species that agricultural land can support. Additionally, crops are often grown in monocultures, a field composed of just a single crop species rather than multiple species, further reducing biodiversity. This increases the susceptibility of fields to disease and pest damage, furthering the need for additional chemical intervention.
Agriculture is one of the major sources of greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change. Methane and nitrous oxide, produced from livestock and as an indirect product of fertilisers, are particularly problematic. Increasing production or land area can increase the amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere while reducing the amount of carbon that the land can sequester, enhancing the impact on climate change.
Climate change affects agriculture in return. Changes in precipitation patterns impact crop yields and reduce yield reliability. Higher temperatures, particularly heat waves, can lead to high yield losses, livestock death or sickness, a reduction in workable hours, increases in water supply needs and even damage to equipment. More frequent and higher intensity extreme weather, such as storms, can also impact in a similar way. Therefore, agriculture may not be able to keep up with food demands and would need to further increase its production. This could continue to drive climate change and exacerbate the impacts on agriculture in a cycle of detrimental effects.
What are the other options?
One solution is reducing food loss (by food suppliers) and waste (by retailers, food service providers and consumers). It is thought that, globally, around one-third of all food produced for human consumption is lost or wasted every year. This amounts to about 1.3 billion tonnes of food per year. When this is buried in landfills, it is broken down by microorganisms using anaerobic digestion, producing greenhouse gases (specifically methane and carbon dioxide), which are released into the atmosphere. Some countries, however, have begun to set up food recycling centres to capture these gases to be used as a renewable source of biofuel.
Food waste recycling plant in America. James Loesch via Flickr
By reducing the amount of food wasted, there would be less need to increase agricultural intensification to keep up with the growing population. This can be achieved through several routes, including changing the strict cosmetic standards of many retailers, providing better clarity on food expiration dates and bringing consumers’ attention to how much food they waste each year. For example, through a campaign called ‘Love Food, Hate Waste’, the UK had a 21% reduction in avoidable household waste between 2007 and 2012.
Sustainable farming practices are needed to ensure that global agriculture does not continue to seriously contribute to climate change. Through research into sustainable practices and better techniques, agriculture may be better able to provide enough food for the global population without compromising our environment. By reducing livestock numbers, increasing the efficiency of fertiliser application and better management for manure, the EU reduced agricultural emissions by 24% between 1990 and 2012. Additionally, the UK government is changing how they subsidise farmers. The Sustainable Farming Incentive, piloted by Defra, will reward acts that improve environmental outcomes and reduce carbon emissions. This should hopefully help to increase the sustainability of our agriculture, reducing its impact on climate change.
Another potential solution is regenerative farming, a practice that aims to reverse the impacts of and contribution to climate change by rebuilding soil organic matter and restoring degraded soil biodiversity. This results in an increase in carbon drawdown and an improvement in the water cycle. These farming practices include low- or no-till techniques, increasing plant diversity, introducing cover crops and crop rotations and minimizing physical disturbance. It also includes growing trees and shrubs around crops, using perennial crops that do not need to be replanted annually and creating borders of pollinator habitats. It is hoped that, by restoring the health of soils, farms will be able to increase their yield without negatively impacting the environment, reducing the need for agricultural intensification.
Tilling is used to aerate the soil, prepare seedbeds, suppress weeds, level soil, incorporate fertilisers and turn over cover crops. however, tilling contributes to soil erosion, surface runoff and carbon emissions. Image by United Soybean Board via Flickr
There is a concern, however, that the reduced tilling may lead farmers to rely more heavily on herbicides to remove unwanted plants. There may also be an increased use of fertilisers, to meet the need for nitrogen to convert carbon into microbial organic matter to allow it to remain sequestered in the soil. Questions have also been raised about whether regenerative farming can sequester additional soil carbon effectively, without decreasing yield or requiring more land for farming. For example if cover crops or additional trees and shrubs are added to farmlands without decreasing yield, then carbon sequestration will increase. However, if yield decreases and habitats such as a forest have to be cleared to replace lost production, then carbon sequestration will either remain the same or decrease.
COP26
There were several pledges and agendas launched at COP26 last year, including the Glasgow Leaders’ Declaration on Forests and Land Use, which intends to halt and reverse forest loss by 2030, reducing agricultural expansion into forest areas; and the Agriculture Innovation Mission for Climate (AIM4C), which looks to fund scientific breakthroughs, public and private applied research, and the development, demonstration and deployment of tactical, actionable and innovative products services and knowledge to producers. AIM4C has been criticised, however, for being over-reliant on technological solutions rather than sustainable farming methods. Other announcements including the climate emissions pledges and the Global Methane Pledge will also impact agriculture and its contribution to climate change, as countries look to introduce new regulations and policies to reduce emissions from farms.
The Koronivia Joint Work on Agriculture (KJWA) was also discussed at COP26. Originally established at COP23 in 2017, KJWA aims to bring discussions of agriculture into the UNFCCC and address agricultural issues through the lens of climate change. This process was set to end at cop26, but due to many areas of disagreement, the roadmap of how the Koronivia process will be going forward was included in the debate at the next meeting of the UN climate process, the Bonn Climate Change Conference, in June 2022.
Summary
Agriculture must keep up with the resource demands of an increasing global population. This is mainly achieved through increasing agricultural land or increasing yield. Both have negative environmental impacts and can contribute to climate change.
Climate change can also negatively impact agriculture, through changing precipitation patterns and extreme weather causing loss of crops and damage to equipment. This, then, requires more agricultural intensification to make up for losses, further contributing to climate change.
Solutions include more sustainable agricultural practices and reducing food waste. This reduces the impacts of agriculture on climate change while also reducing the need for more agricultural intensification. Other practices such as regenerative farming may help to improve soil health and carbon sequestration but there are criticisms about its effectiveness.
Several pledges launched at COP26 will impact agriculture and its contribution to climate change, including the Glasgow Leaders’ Declaration on Forests and Land Use, the Global Methane Pledge and the Agriculture Innovation Mission for Climate.
Useful resources:
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations’ (FAO) 2013 report: food wastage footprint: impacts on natural resources, illustrating how food is wasted or lost through various stages of the supply chain, highlighting the significant environmental costs.
The 2021 policy paper for the Sustainable Farming Incentive, piloted by the Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (Defra).
A 2019 document outlining the National Farming Union of England and Wales’ (NFU) plans for achieving net zero, outlining the current impacts of agriculture and their goals for increasing sustainability.
Taking its title from a chilling warning made by the United Nations that the world’s soils could be gone within a lifetime, Sixty Harvests Left demonstrates why food and future harvests matter more than ever and shows us how we can restore our planet for a nature-friendly future.
Ian Newton discusses the changes that have occurred in British agriculture over the past seventy years, and the effects they have had on bird populations. He explains how different farming procedures have affected birds and other wildlife, and how an understanding of the processes involved could help in future conservation.
This book examines the climate, environmental, and human effects on agroecosystems and how the existing paradigms must be revised in order to establish sustainable production.
This multidisciplinary book presents state-of-the-art reviews of current SI approaches to promote major food crops, challenges and advances made in technology, and the institutional and policy measures necessary to overcome the constraints faced by smallholder farmers.
This book provides the first widely accessible overview of the concept of sustainable intensification as an innovative approach to agriculture and as a key element in the transition to a green economy.
This book examines over 30 years’ worth of research from the Allerton Project, a research and demonstration farm in the UK. Designed to provide guidance, feedback and recommendations to farmers, practitioners and policymakers, the Allerton Project is an exceptionally well-documented case study of lowland agricultural land management which has the purpose of meeting multiple objectives.
Most development projects will require an environmental survey. Image by John K Thorne via Flickr.
When and why you might need an ecologist
You’re likely to need to employ an ecologist if you are planning to build a house or add to or alter an existing building. An ecologist will conduct the surveys necessary to assess the possibility of the project impacting any ecosystem or habitat which is home to a protected species.
You will need a survey if the site includes or is adjacent or connected to any of the following, although your architect, planning agent or local planning authority should be able to advise you on this:
Woodland, hedgerows or scrub
Lakes, ponds, ditches or other bodies of water
Meadow, pasture or parkland
Heathland
Coastal habitat
Large rural or suburban gardens
Complex tree structures, caves or cave-like spaces
Existing derelict buildings, farm buildings or timber buildings, particularly those with access into roof spaces.
The first step in the process is usually a Preliminary Ecological Appraisal. This survey will identify evidence of any protected species or habitat suitable for supporting a protected species. If any are found then this will inform what further protected species surveys or vegetation surveys are required.
It is important to talk to an ecologist as early as possible in the planning process. Image by Rebecca Siegel via Flickr.
What is a Preliminary Ecological Appraisal?
A Preliminary Ecological Appraisal is conducted by an ecologist and usually involves both a desk-based study and a walkover/habitat survey. The desk-based study looks at local records to see if there is current evidence of protected species being present up to 2km away from your site. It will also look to see if the project has the potential to impact any nationally or internationally protected areas. The walkover survey (sometimes referred to as a Phase 1 or Extended Phase 1 survey) will assess what types of habitat are on and around the area as well as the likely presence of any species that are currently protected. It will also look at the value and significance of the habitat.
Once these are complete, the ecologist will compile a report for you that will include this information, as well as an assessment of how the project might impact the surrounding habitat/protected species and any legal issues that might be raised by the development. If no evidence of protected species is found, no further surveys will be required. However, if they find that the site of your project is home to one or more protected species, or that the habitat is likely to support them, then further species-specific surveys will be required.
The report may also make recommendations as to how the local biodiversity can be improved upon during and following the development in line with Biodiversity Net Gain guidelines. This national policy aims to improve biodiversity by creating or enhancing habitats in association with development, so that the environment is left in a better state than it was before the project began.
Further species-specific surveys may include surveying for bats using passive recorders.
What further surveys might be required?
If your Preliminary Ecological Appraisal suggests that there are protected species or their supporting habitat present on or around the development site, then more detailed protected species surveys will be required. Commonly referred to as Phase 2 surveys, these may include botanical surveys, as well as those for bats, great crested newts, hazel dormice, reptiles, water voles, badgers and breeding birds. All of these types of surveys will involve the ecologist(s) conducting at least one, but more likely a series of, site visits. There may be seasonal constraints as to when they can do this.
Once all surveys are complete, the ecologist will compile a report (usually referred to as an Ecological Impact Assessment report or EcIA) which presents their findings as well as the likely impact of the project on protected habitats and species. It will take into account your building and landscape plans including details such as proposed drainage and lighting. The report will also recommend the measures that can be taken to avoid, mitigate or compensate for the impacts, as well as how the local biodiversity could be enhanced.
For sites that might impact a European protected site, such as Special Areas of Conservation (SAC), Special Protection Areas (SPA) and Ramsar sites, an additional survey known as a Habitats Regulation Assessment might be required. This must be submitted by a competent public body (usually the local planning authority), although the work will most likely be carried out by a consultant ecologist. This will assess whether the project is likely to impact the site due to factors such as increased recreational pressure on the area, or significantly increased noise, light and water pollution.
Great crested newt surveys must be conducted during the spring. Image by Chris H via Flickr.
How to find an ecologist
There are numerous ecological consultancies located throughout the UK and Ireland, ranging from small or sole traders up to companies that employ large numbers of ecologists with multiple offices around the country. An internet search will show you if there are any based near to you, although the larger consultancies, in particular, will often undertake work over large geographical areas.
Alternatively, you may wish to search the database on the Chartered Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management (CIEEM) website. CIEEM is the professional body which represents and supports ecologists and environmental managers in the UK, Ireland and parts of Europe. Their members have proven that they are able to work to CIEEM’s professional standards and regularly undertake training to continue their professional development. Using their online members’ directory, you can search for ecologists within certain geographical areas or for specific services. Furthermore, should you have any complaints or concerns over the work conducted, CIEEM has an official complaints procedure that you can use.
When looking to appoint an ecologist, it is worthwhile getting several quotes for comparison. At this point, it is helpful to provide the ecologist with as much information as possible, such as the scope of the project (including detailed plans if these have already been drawn up), the proposed timescale you are hoping to adhere to and any advice that you have already been given (i.e. by an architect or planning agent). Providing them with a map of the area to be developed can also be extremely helpful.
Useful questions to ask at this point are:
What is included in the quote and, should additional surveys be required, what are these likely to cost?
How long is the work likely to take?
Would it be possible to see a draft report and what will be the timescale for this?
Are there likely to be other expenses that aren’t covered in the quote, such as mileage or sample analysis?
Important things to consider
• Many protected species surveys have seasonal constraints and can only be conducted at certain times of the year. Because of this, it is important to discuss your requirements with an ecologist as early as possible in the planning process so that you can plan ahead and avoid unnecessary delays.
• Don’t feel like you will be able to ‘get away with’ not conducting the required surveys. Failure to conduct or comply with the appropriate environmental surveys is punishable by law.
• Remember that survey data is not valid indefinitely. Most will be fine up to a duration of 12 months, and some even longer. But any that is more than three years old will definitely need repeating to account for any changes that may have occurred in the interim. If in doubt, it is best to discuss this with your ecologist, planning agent or local planning authority.
Summary
To summarise, when constructing a new building or adding to or modifying an existing one, an ecological survey (or surveys) is usually required to assess its impact on the surrounding habitat and any protected species that may be present. The report(s) generated by these surveys will need to be submitted to your local planning authority as part of the planning process.
To avoid delays with your project it is best to get your ecologist involved as soon as possible so that any necessary surveys can be completed on time – remember that many can only be conducted at certain times of the year.
Lovelock was the first person to detect Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in the atmosphere after developing an electron capture detector in the late 1960s. CFCs are nontoxic chemicals used in the manufacturing of products such as aerosol sprays, and are used as solvents and refrigerants. Their role in the depletion of the ozone layer led to their inclusion in the Montreal Protocol, which worked to phase out several substances to protect the ozone layer. During his time aboard the RRS Shackleton, Lovelock measured the concentration of CFC-11 from the northern hemisphere to the Antarctic. These experiments provided the first useful data on the widespread presence of CFCs in the atmosphere, though the damage these cause was not discovered until the 1970s, by Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina. 
James Lovelock was also known for his Gaia hypothesis. This hypothesis, first created in the 1960s, proposed that the complex interacting system of the Earth’s biotic and abiotic parts could be considered as a single organism. Drawing from research by Alfred C. Redfield and G. Evelyn Hutchinson, Lovelock formulated that living organisms interact with the non-living environment to form a synergistic and self-regulating complex system, by co-evolving with their environment. He suggested that the whole system, including the biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and pedosphere, seeks an environment optimal for life. This evolution is facilitated through a cybernetic feedback system that is unconsciously operated by the biota, leading to a final ‘state’ of full homeostasis. 
While the Gaia hypothesis is generally accepted by many in the environmentalist community, there has been some criticism, particularly from the scientific community. Lovelock later made revisions to the hypothesis to clarify that there was no conscious purpose within this self-regulating system and to bring the hypothesis into alignment with ideas from other fields, such as systems ecology. This had reduced criticism, but there still remains scepticism from the scientific community.
• Bee orchids (Ophrys apifera) will flower briefly in June and July on dry, chalk and limestone grasslands, while sea cliffs will be adorned with the delicate blush of sea thrift (Armeria maritima) from April to October.
• June to August is an important time for ladybirds. During this period, mated females will lay their eggs which then hatch into larvae and form pupae through a series of four stages, or ‘instars’. Adult ladybirds emerge from the pupae in August.
• The summer months are a great time to spot bats hunting for insects during the dusk and dawn hours. Female bats give birth to their young in June and within three weeks these juveniles will be learning to fly themselves. By August the youngsters will no longer need their mother’s milk and will be hunting for their own food.
Agricultural Development and Sustainable Intensification
