Author: Hana Ketley

The NHBS Guide to UK Lichens

Lichens are composites of two or more different organisms, an alga or cyanobacteria living among the filaments of a fungus species. It is a symbiotic relationship where the fungal partner, also termed the mycobiont, makes up the body or ‘thallus’, and the algae or cyanobacteria is the photosynthetic partner, or photobiont, providing nourishment. There is debate as to whether this symbiotic relationship is mutualistic, where both parties benefit and neither is harmed through this interaction, or a type of controlled parasitism, where the mycobiont is ‘farming’ the photobiont for the sugars produced by photosynthesis.

There are over 1,800 species recorded in the UK, and 17,000 species worldwide. There are three main categories of lichen body types: crustose, fruticose and foliose. Crustose lichen are species that form thin, crust-like coverings that are tightly bound to the surface they’re on. Fruticose lichen form coral-like bushy or shrubby structures with a holdfast, a root-like structure that anchors it to trees, rocks or other surfaces. Foliose lichen are species that have a flattened, leaf-like thallus with an upper and lower cortex, the surface layer or ‘skin’ of the lichen, and attach to surfaces by hyphae with root-like structures called rhizines. There are other growth forms, such as leprose (a powder-like or granular appearance), squamulose (scaly), filamentose (stringy) and byssoid (wispy). These can also be divided into numerous subtypes.

Lichens are an important food source for many species, such as deer and goats, and are used as building material for birds nests. They occur from sea level to high elevations, tolerating many different environmental conditions. They grow on a wide variety of surfaces, from tree bark, leaves, mosses, rocks, gravestones, roofs, soil, bones and rubber. The general guidance for identifying lichens is to look at growth form, colour, habitat and substrate type and distribution. You should also look for the presence or absence of certain structures such as rhizines, soredia (scale-like reproductive structures), isidia (column-like outgrowths of the thallus) and apothecia (a cup-shaped structure containing asci, spore-bearing cells). A hand lens and a guide that covers other lichen species will be useful for identifying these.

Spot tests can be performed, which involve placing a drop of a chemical, such as potassium hydroxide or sodium hypochlorite, on different parts of the lichen. Any colour change, or lack thereof, can be used for identification when following dichotomous keys for lichen species. Care should be taken when using chemicals, however, particularly in the natural environment, due to the damage they can cause.

Some species are harder to identify in the field and require microscopic examination or further chemical testing. Additionally, there may be variations in appearance due to weather conditions or the condition of the lichen. Its colour can change when the lichen is wet or in poor condition, for example, or the growth form can appear different if the lichen has begun to disintegrate.

Elegant Sunburst Lichen (Xanthoria elegans)

Distribution: Widespread, but most frequently found in upland areas.
Growth type: Foliose
What to look for: This is a small lichen, typically no more than 5cm wide with lobes that are less than 2mm broad and closely pressed against a surface. Their upper surface is orange, with a white lower surface, a cortex (skin), and attached with short, sparse hapters (peg-like structures on the lower surface of lichen). Soredia and isidia are absent but apothecia structures are common.

Björn S… via Flickr

Common Greenshield Lichen (Flavoparmelia caperata)

Distribution: Widespread, more common in the western and southern parts of England, scarce in northern and central Scotland.
Growth type: Foliose
What to look for: This is a pale grey species that turns yellowish-green when wet. The lower surface is black with a brown margin and black, unbranched rhizoids that attach it to the substrate. Its lobes are rounded, around 3–8mm wide, with patches of soredia. The lobes are often wrinkled in appearance, particularly in older specimens.

Paul Morris via Flickr

Hooded Rosette Lichen (Physcia adscendens)

Distribution: Widespread
Growth type: Foliose
What to look for: Hooded rosette lichen is a pale grey species, with lobes up to 2mm wide that are curled into a hood shape. They have cilia, thin projections from the margin of the lichen, which progress from pale to black at the ends. Soralia are usually abundant and disc-shaped apothecia can also be present. The lower surface is white to greyish. They are attached to surfaces by rhizines, which can be white to black.

Hedera.baltica via Flickr

Hoary Rosette Lichen (Physcia aipolia)

Distribution: Fairly widespread
Growth type: Foliose
What to look for: This species is pale, from white to bluish-grey. It has white-rimmed apothecia that have black centres. Soralia and marginal cilia are absent. The lobes also have distinct flecks of white called pseudocyphellae. It grows in well-lit habitats, usually on fences or trees, often in the nodes of branches.

Gilles San Martin via Flickr

Common Orange Lichen / Yellow Scale (Xanthoria parietina)

Distribution: Widespread
Growth type: Foliose
What to look for: This species is a yellow-orange coloured lichen that can appear greener when wet. It is a leafy lichen with flattened lobes that are between 1–4mm in diameter. Its lower surface is white and has pale rhizines or hapters. Similarly to X. elegans, soredia and isidia are absent but yellow or orange apothecia are usually present. There is a cortex that is made of tightly packed fungal hyphae, which can be thicker in more exposed locations and is thought to protect the lichen from evaporation and exposure.

Udo Schmidt via Flickr

Monk’s Hood Lichen (Hypogymnia physodes)

Distribution: Widespread
Growth type: Foliose
What to look for: The thallus is grey to greenish-grey, with inflated lobes that lift at the tips. These inflations can burst open, displaying the floury soredia inside. They may have black dots, called pycnidia, near the lobe tips. Rhizines are absent and the lower surface is wrinkled with a light brown margin, darkening towards a black centre. They may have apothecia, which occur on short stalks and have a red-brown disc.

Björn S… via Flickr

Many-forked Cladonia (Cladonia furcata)

Distribution: Widespread, particularly in heathland, healthy turf and on dunes.
Growth type: Fruticose
What to look for: This species has an upright secondary thallus, called the podetium, which can vary from grey-green to brown. This forms loose mats, and the finer branches are erect and sharply pointed. Soredia are absent, with few to no squamules (scales). They may have small, green areolar patches set into or raised on the cortex surface. The podetia become darker brown and glossy with age. Pycnidia, the asexual fruiting bodies, are small, brown and are found on the branch tips. This species has apothecia, which are brown and occur in extended clusters at the ends of podetia.

Jason Hollinger via Flickr

Lasallia pustulata

Distribution: Scattered distribution, mainly in parts of Wales, south- and north-west England and scattered areas of Scotland.
Growth type: Foliose
What to look for: The thallus of this species is a pale grey or brown when dry but becomes brownish or yellowish-green when wet. It has convex pustules across its upper surface which often appear darker in colour and are covered in a powder towards the centre. The margins of this species are often ragged and can be darkened by the presence of black isidia. The lower surface can be grey, brown or black, and have corresponding depressions to the pustules on the upper surface. Rhizines are absent and this species is attached to substrate by a stalk.

Dry state: Jacinta lluch valero via Flickr
Wet state: Björn S… via Flickr

Oakmoss (Evernia prunastri)

Distribution: Widespread
Growth type: Fruticose
What to look for: They primarily grow on oak trees but can be found on the trunk and branches of other deciduous trees and conifers. This species is flat and strap-like, highly branched (forked) and bushy, forming large clumps when growing together. When dry the thallus is rough and the colour can vary from green to a pale greenish-white. When wet, they appear dark olive-green to yellow-green and are rubbery in texture.

Björn S… via Flickr

Pink Earth Lichen (Dibaeis baeomyces)

Distribution: Widespread in Scotland and Wales, scattered throughout England, more common in the north and west.
Growth type: Fruticose
What to look for: Pink earth lichen have bulbous pink apothecia that are around 1–4mm in diameter, set on stalks up to 6mm tall, although these are not always present. The thallus can vary in colour between grey or white, occasionally with a pink tinge, and can appear greenish-grey when wet. They are coarsely granular and are sometimes covered in small, white balls up to 1mm in width, with small powdery areas.

Jason Hollinger via Flickr

Yellow Map Lichen (Rhizocarpon geographicum)

Distribution: Widespread in Scotland and north-west England, and the upland areas of England, Wales and Ireland. Less common in the East Midlands, East of England and the South East.
Growth type: Crustose
What to look for: This is a bright yellow to yellow-green species, with a cracked thallus, flat, black apothecia and bordered by a black line of fungal hyphae. This lichen grows in patches adjacent to each other, giving the appearance of a map.

Björn S… via Flickr

Recommended books and equipment

Lichens: Towards a Minimal Resistance

The result of several years of investigation carried out on several different continents, this remarkable book offers an original, radical and, like its subject matter, symbiotic reflection on this common but mostly invisible form of life, blending cultures and disciplines, drawing on biology, ecology, philosophy, literature, poetry, and even graphic art.

 

Lichens: An Illustrated Guide to the British and Irish Species

This book provides an invaluable guide to identifying the British and Irish species both for the amateur naturalist just starting to study lichens and the more advanced lichenologist. It offers the environmentalist and ecologist a concise work of reference, compact enough to be used in the field.

 

FSC Wildlife Pack 20: Lichens

These colourful and widespread organisms can be seen all year round. Featuring six of the FSC’s popular fold-out charts: lichens on twigs, churchyard lichens, urban lichens 1 and 2, rocky shore lichens and lichens of heaths and moors

Each pack includes a card-sized magnifier, so you can get in even closer to the details.

 

Opticron Hand Lens (10x 23mm)

Observe the finer details of your specimen with this high-quality 23mm doublet lens, the most commonly recommended magnifier for all types of fieldwork.

 

All prices are correct at the time of posting, but may change at any time.
Please see nhbs.com for up to date pricing and availability.

Universal nest bricks

Many UK bird populations have shown a dramatic decline since the 1970s and 80s, with species such as starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), house sparrows (Passer domesticus) and swifts (Apus apus) declining by over 50%. This is thought to be due to changes in land use and agricultural practices impacting food supply and the availability of suitable habitats. Changes in architecture have meant a reduction in important nooks and crannies that are utilised as nesting sites by species such as swifts, reducing reproduction rates in urban areas.

Providing suitable nest boxes has been shown to help increase reproduction rates for many species, helping to boost populations. Stephen Fitt and Mike Priaulx, members of the Swifts Local Network: Swifts and Planning Group, discuss the concept of ‘universal’ bricks, the British Standard key requirements on the inclusion of nest boxes within housing developments and current calls for a more specific national policy regarding these features.

Universal nest bricks

A British Standard BS 42021:2022 for integral nest boxes was published in March 2022. This sets out requirements for numbers, location, dimensions, materials, entrance hole size, and an administrative process to demonstrate implementation on site. This will enable integral nest boxes to provide nest spaces for a wide variety of species, such as house sparrows, starlings, swifts, house martins, and blue and great tits.

The standard also covers nest cups for house martins and swallows.

House martin using a Schwegler swift brick by Hugh Hastings and the Duchy of Cornwall

Some species-specific integral nest boxes are quite inflexible. Sparrow terraces, for example, are rarely fully occupied and are unpopular with other species. Deep nest bricks, such as those designed specifically for starlings, could cause a swift to become trapped within it.

Although swift bricks were designed initially to allow swifts to nest, these are now considered a ‘universal’ nest brick as set out in the NHBC Foundation report: Biodiversity in new housing developments: creating wildlife-friendly communities (April 2021). Section 8.1 Nest sites for birds (page 42) states: “Provision of integral nest sites for swifts is through hollow chambers fitted into the fabric of a building while in construction. Although targeting swifts they will also be used by house sparrows, tits and starlings so are considered a ‘universal brick’.”

Swift by Simon Stirrup (Cambridge Bird Club)

The British Standard sets out key requirements for integral boxes as follows:

  • The number of integral boxes in housing developments – at least one per residential unit on average.
  • The numbers of the above installed in larger buildings – to be proportionate to the mass and design; there is not necessarily an upper limit.
  • In all but exceptional circumstances the entrance holes of all integral boxes should be 30mm x 65mm minimum to enable starlings to enter.
  • The entrance hole should be located close to the base of the box to avoid birds becoming trapped within.

This ‘universal’ nest brick concept has also been described in an article by CIEEM, which references a January 2022 paper on this subject by the Swifts Local Network (SLN).

Local policy legislation has also begun to recognise this line of thinking, for example the Westminster Environment Sustainable Planning Document (February 2022), which in particular calls for: “‘swift bricks’ within external walls…Swift bricks’ are also used by house sparrows and other small bird species so are considered a ‘universal brick’. Integrated nesting bricks are preferred to external boxes for reasons of longevity, reduced maintenance, better temperature regulation, and aesthetic integration with the building design” (Species and Habitats, page 49).

The results from Duchy of Cornwall monitoring programmes confirm that by installing high numbers (an average of one per residential unit) of “‘swift/universal boxes’ in new-build developments, approximately 50% showed signs of occupation after five years, so it is highly likely that they will all be used during the lifetime of the building(s) they are situated in.”

Swift chicks inside a ‘universal brick’. Image by Dick Newell.

Many conservationists would like to see either a numerical value in the Biodiversity Net Gain methodology for these features for wildlife, or a separate strand to the national policy requiring these to be specified. The BREEAM environmental assessment has been following a similar approach for more than a decade.

Such features are already demanded by specific policies in some Local Plans, but other plans are still being published with no such requirements.

CIEEM highlight in the June 2019 issue of their In Practice journal the value of swift bricks to a wide range of small bird species, and provide readily available best practice guidance on the implementation of the bricks, including a recommendation for one nest space per dwelling on average (in accordance with the BS 42021:2022, and following on from RIBA guidance Designing for Biodiversity published back in 2013). While some local authorities such as Brighton are implementing this guidance, others rely on numbers derived from ecologists’ and planning officers’ advice, which can be very variable.

Some developers, Taylor Wimpey being one example, are publishing their own policies for biodiversity measures such as the installation of integral nest bricks.

Defra are developing a simplified Small Sites Metric for Biodiversity Net Gain, and the consultation on this held during autumn 2021 may provide a glimpse of the future as it asks about including a value for bird and bat boxes in the metric, although this has not appeared in practice as yet.

To find out about the swift nest boxes we sell at NHBS, check out our website.

This Week in Biodiversity News – 31st October 2022

Climate Change

100 universities in the UK have pledged to divest from fossil fuels, equating to 65% of the country’s higher education sector. The Fossil Free campaign, led by students, has been active since 2013, with the first institution, the University of Glasgow, announcing its divestment in 2014. Coventry University has become the 100th. Together, the endowments now unavailable for fossil fuel companies are worth more than £17.6bn.

Key UN reports published recently are warning that the world is close to an irreversible climate breakdown. The reports state that global greenhouse gas emissions must fall by about half by 2030 to meet the internationally agreed target of limiting heating to 1.5C or below, but they are still rising. This news comes ahead of the announcement that profits from the world’s seven biggest oil firms increased to nearly £150bn so far this year.

Conservation

The threatened Barberry carpet moth has seen a boom in numbers in a forest in Dorset, with the population trebling in four years. Experts found 50 larvae in Blandford Forest during their most recent survey, compared to just 14 in 2018. The moth was almost extinct in the 1980s, limited to just a single location in the UK. This drop was thought to be due to Barberry bushes being removed by farmers. Both Forestry England and Butterfly Conservation began planting Barberry plants in woodlands and along the edges of farmland in 2007 to try to repopulate the species.

The Center for Biological Diversity is suing National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Fisheries in the US, as it says the organisation is not protecting endangered Pacific humpback whales from entanglements in drift gillnets. The lawsuit claims that, in the past two fishing seasons, about 12 humpbacks were caught in the California-based drift gillnet fishery, violating the Endangered Species Act. Several other lawsuits have been launched in recent weeks to protect wildlife, including one for the lesser prairie chicken and another for the streaked horned lark.

30% of forests in Sierra Nevada, USA, disappeared between 2011 and 2020. The historic droughts and wildfires that plagued California for more than a decade have severely impacted woodlands. More than half of mature forest habitats and 85% of high-density mature forests have either been destroyed or transformed into low-density forests. These areas usually contain high levels of biodiversity, with a range of different types of trees, but the increasing loss of these mature forests is threatening this biodiversity.

New discoveries

Six new rain frog species have been discovered in Ecuador. Scientists discovered all six species on the eastern slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes, in two national parks, within a 20km-radius of deforested areas. There are more than 550 different Pristimantis frog species across Central and South America. All six have been recommended to be added to the IUCN’s red list of threatened species.

A new species of mammal has been found in mainland Britain for the first time. The greater white-toothed shrew, usually found across western parts of Europe as well as the Channel Islands of Guernsey and Alderney, was spotted in Sunderland in 2021. The dead specimen was examined using a DNA test to confirm its species. There is other evidence that this species has been here for a while, with remains found in owl pellets in Ireland in 2007 and photos dating from at least 2015. Research is currently underway to discover how these shrews may have arrived.

Research

A new study has found that bees ‘count’ from left to right. There is a much-debated theory that this direction is inherent to all animals, including humans. However, as the opposite direction has been found in people from cultures that use an Arabic script, it has been suggested that there is a cultural element involved. The study, published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences journal, found that after being trained to associate numbers with a sucrose reward, honey bees ordered numbers in increasing size from left to right.

A bar-tailed godwit has set a world record with a 13,560km continuous flight from Alaska to southern Australia, taking 11 days and one hour. The satellite tag recorded the flight of the five-month-old juvenile bar-tailed godwit, which was over 500km longer than the previous record. Juveniles migrate separately from adults, who make the journey up to six weeks earlier, as the juveniles use the extra time to fatten up for the long migration. Bar-jailed godwits can shrink their internal organs to make more space for these extra fat stores.

Hybrid songbirds are found more often in human-altered environments than in natural areas. A new study, published in Global Change Biology, found that hybrids of the black-capped and mountain chickadee, two common North American songbirds, were more likely to be found where humans had altered the landscape in some way. The study looked at observational data from the citizen science site eBird, as well as DNA samples from 196 black-capped and 213 mountain chickadees at 81 sites in North America. While they found a positive, significant correlation between hybrids and areas where humans have disturbed their habitat in some form, the study did not determine why these hybrids were more common in these areas.

Policy

The UK government has delayed its publication of clean water and biodiversity targets, breaching its Environment Act. The targets, which will underpin the country’s nature recovery were meant to be released on 31 October, ahead of the COP27 UN climate talks in November. The delay in publication means the delegation will not have targets to present to other countries. This is stated to be due to the “significant public response” to Defra’s consultation on nature recovery, with no date set as to when the targets will be published. This adds further concern to a number of environmentalists, as the government is currently reviewing over 500 pieces of environmental legislation by the end of next year under the retained EU law bill. If, by the end of this period, any bill has not been amended or retained by parliament, it will fall. Many critics are suggesting that it is unlikely the government will be able to review the thousands of EU laws required within this time.

Pollution

An analysis has found that scrapping nature-friendly farming payment schemes could worsen river pollution in England by up to 20%. Recent sources suggested that the previous government was looking to remove nature restoration from the upcoming scheme intended to replace the EU’s area-based payment scheme for farmers. 86% of rivers in England were deemed to not be in a ‘good ecological condition’, with agriculture being the reason why 40% of water bodies in England failed to meet this status, according to the Environment Agency.

This Week in Biodiversity News – 17th October 2022

Climate Change

Climate change could force primates such as monkeys and lemurs from the trees to the forest floor. A new study from San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance suggests that in warmer temperatures, tree-dwelling primates could begin spending more time on the ground searching for shade and water. Spending more time on the forest floor could increase interactions between these species and humans, as well as domestic animals, increasing the chances of conflict, disturbance and disease transmission. This change in behaviour may also have an impact on other species, as the primates’ diets may become more generalised, changing predator/prey relationships and potentially impacting dispersal strategies.

Extinction Risk

More than a third of hoverfly species in Europe are at risk of extinction, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). This assessment, requested and funded by the European Commission, found that intensive agriculture, harmful pesticides, unsustainable commercial forestry, urban development and climate change have been identified as the main threats to hoverflies. 314 out of 890 hoverfly species in Europe are Vulnerable, Endangered or Critically Endangered.

Almost 70% of animal populations have been wiped out since 1970, according to the biennial Living Planet Report. The leading scientific assessment, run by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and Zoological Society of London, shows that the abundance of birds, fish, amphibians and reptiles declined, on average, by more than two thirds between 1970 and 2018. The 89 authors are now urging world leaders to reach an ambitious agreement at the upcoming COP15 biodiversity summit and to cut carbon emissions to limit global heating to below 1.5 degrees within this decade.

Alaska has canceled its fall and winter snow crab harvesting seasons after the population declined across the Bering Sea. The cause of the collapse is currently being researched but it is thought that increased predation, combined with stresses from warming waters, may be to blame. Populations of several species, including the snow crab, have also been shifting away from the coast and northwards for the last four decades, impacting Alaskan fisheries and local communities.

New discoveries

A new fish has been discovered in the Atacama Trench off the west coast of South America. The small blue snailfish was spotted by a team of scientists using free-falling landers to sample deep-sea creatures using cameras and traps with bait. The deep-sea species was seen from about 6,000-7,600m deep and, using DNA barcoding and a 3D x-ray technique called microcomputed tomography, the team was able to determine where the species fit within the snailfish family. They were surprised to learn that this new species appears to be a seperate coloniser of the Atacama Trench, as it belongs in the genus Paraliparis, with other species in this genus rarely being found deeper than 2,000m.

Research

A new study has found that wild bees are active in woodland tree-tops, a habitat now thought to play a more significant role in bee conservation than previously thought. Researchers from the University of East Anglia studied bee communities across 15 woodland sites in a farmed landscape in Norfolk in late spring, examining levels of bee activity in four habitats: the canopy and understory of both woodland interiors and exposed woodland edges. They found a diverse community of wild bees utilising the woodland canopy, particularly near flowering sycamore trees. This has implications for bee conservation policies, as nectar producing trees such as sycamores may represent a significant food source for certain bee species.

Catch and release fishing may be having physiological and behavioural impacts on sharks. The practice, an important component of both ecotourism industries and scientific research worldwide, was the subject of a recent study published in Conservation Physiology. Researchers used ‘biologging’ and blood chemistry to explore the impacts of these interactions on two species: the blue shark (Prionace glauca) and the tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier). The research shows that short-term capture lead to a significant and rapid increase in body temperature in both species, lasting for between 10-40 minutes post-release. Further research is now needed into the potential longer term effects on the welfare of sharks that are caught using catch and release methods.

Policy

Experts call for legal rights and protections to be granted to non-human entities such as animals, trees and rivers to help tackle climate breakdown and biodiversity loss. A report entitled Law in the Emerging Bio Age states that legal frameworks may have a key part to play in governing human interactions with the environment and biotechnology.

Pollution

Chicken farms may explain the declining health of the River Wye, according to samples taken by citizen scientists. The Wye Salmon Association, with support from the Countryside Charity CPRE, tested soil samples along public footpaths near a tributary of the River Wye in Herefordshire and found that the highest levels of phosphorus were found in soils close to intensive poultry units. High phosphorus levels in river systems have a number of ecological impacts, including eutrophiciation, where excess nutrients cause increased algal and plant growth, which can reduce oxygen levels in the water. Toxic algal blooms can occur, as well as changes in habitat availability, where increased plant growth has covered previously bare gravel or sediment river beds. Campaigners are now calling for stronger regulations around the spreading of manure to limit phosphorus levels in soil.

A new study has revealed the ‘staggering’ scale of lost fishing gear currently drifting in the oceans. These include 25 million pots and traps, 14 billion hooks, and enough nets that, if tied together, could stretch around the world 18 times. Published in Science Advances, this report by researchers from CSIRO and the University of Tasmania used interviews with 451 commercial fishers from seven different countries to ask about what was being lost. They then matched the date from these interviews with data on global commercial fishing to estimate the total annual losses world wide. Ghost nets, as these lost nets are called, are lethal for many forms of marine life, potentially continuing to trap wildlife for years after they’re lost.

Conservation

A rare woodpecker has been spotted in Dorset, despite thoughts that it had died out locally. The lesser spotted woodpecker, whose population has fallen by 83% since 1970, was spotted at Hollis Mead Organic Dairy Farm in Corscombe. There are only thought to be 12 breeding pairs in Dorset according to the Dorset Wildlife Trust. The farm’s managing director believes that the organic approach his farm is taking, including not using insecticides or pesticides as well as leaving the woodland unmanaged, is beneficial for biodiversity.

Author Interview with Susan Young: Wildlife Photography Fieldcraft

This unique book describes a straightforward system for how to successfully locate wildlife, the most difficult aspect of wildlife photography. Photographing the stunning natural world around us can be a challenging process. Not only does getting the perfect shot require a complex mixture of skill and luck, but there is little practical advice available on how to find the wildlife you’d like to photograph. While patience and persistence have to come from you, being equipped with the right fieldcraft knowledge, offered in this book, can increase your chances of getting the results – and the special moments – you are looking for.

Individual chapters offer guidance on how to photograph birds, mammals, butterflies and dragonflies, as well as reptiles and some of our more elusive species. Various habitat types are discussed, along with tips on equipment, technical specifications and guidance suitable to both newcomers and more experienced wildlife photographers. While sharing some of her most successful and beautiful images, Susan Young also gives useful examples of when things didn’t quite work out – reflecting on how things could have been done differently to get a better outcome.

Susan Young speaks with us about why she chose to write this book, her process for researching each chapter and why wildlife photography is so important for engaging the public with the environment and conservation.

Your new book, Wildlife Photography Fieldcraft, is a unique guide to how to successfully locate wildlife. What drew you to wildlife photography and why did you choose to write this book?

I have had a keen interest in nature from an early age. I originally took up (digital) photography for landscapes, but it was a natural progression to wildlife photography so I could keep a record of my finds. When I started with wildlife, I found it very difficult to find suitable subjects, especially the less common ones, and of course many mammals are nocturnal. I studied many books on wildlife photography, but they all seemed to concentrate on photographic techniques and gave little or no information on how to find wildlife. I had written books before on subjects not previously covered, so decided to write the book I wished I had been able to find when I was looking.

You mention in this book that a lack of knowledge on how to find wildlife to photograph may be just as risky as providing too much information, could you expand on this?

This is related to disturbance. If photographers know very little about the subject of their photographs and do not understand the sensitivity of wildlife, they could disturb a bird, for example, and cause it to abandon its nest, or frighten a deer so it runs off and becomes injured.

On the other hand, if too much information is given out, particularly of a detailed location, photographers can flock to the area in large numbers. This has happened with rare birds, for example, and the birds have become very distressed.

Ptarmigan by Susan Young

This guide is broken up into chapters covering different species groups, all of which are richly detailed, covering descriptions, diet, breeding, habitats, population estimates and more. What was your process for researching the different chapters, and why did you choose to go further to cover topics such as how to make a portable hide and thermal and dynamic soaring?

The whole focus of the information was on what factors influenced where, when and how to find wildlife. Population estimates and habitats, for example, influence where the subject might be found in a broad sense. Breeding and its rituals have a great effect on when certain species are most active and thus most likely to be seen. Description, diet and habits are more detailed indicators allowing the photographer to fine-tune the search, for example. Goldfinches like thistle seed (diet), they are often in flocks (habits) and have distinctive colouring (description), so a photographer situated near a patch of large thistles, at the right time of year, could have interesting photographs of goldfinches balancing on thistles and interacting with each other.

My process was to think of each category for different species and, based on my experience, record the facts for each species and describe how to use them to find wildlife. I then studied reliable sources to add further detail and confirm that what I already had was accurate.

Young Roe jumping by Susan Young

Hides are extremely valuable as they allow the photographer to get close to nervous or rare species without disturbance. Portable hides are particularly useful. I found it difficult to get a flexible, sturdy, inexpensive portable hide that would be comfortable if sat in for some time. My design was based on the plastic pipes I had seen on an American trip, and can be tailored to the individual very easily, and is strong but not too heavy.

Photographing birds in flight, especially birds of prey, is very difficult. By understanding thermal and dynamic soaring, the photographer is equipped to predict the best position to photograph a bird in flight i.e. when the bird is moving more slowly and at the correct height.

How important do you think wildlife photography is in increasing public engagement with the environment and conservation?

Wildlife photography is hugely important as photographs can convey an emotion or fact better than words, and in particular can illustrate features or situations in a compelling, thought-provoking way, or simply attract by their beauty.

Sand Martin and chicks by Susan Young

Your case studies provide a wonderful insight into your photography process. Are there any species that you haven’t yet photographed but would love to?

Pine Martens are at the top of the list. They are beautiful and intelligent but, at present, rare in England. Beavers are another species I would like to photograph, and hopefully, this will become easier if they are introduced to other parts of the UK.

Do you have any current or future projects that you would like to tell us about?

At present I am developing interactive online mini-courses for the Mammal Society using photographs, videos and interactive features. The aim is to attract and engage with more people to gain their support in the quest to learn more, and use the knowledge to try to halt the decline of UK wildlife. I am also developing a course to encourage the use of CCTV systems to monitor wildlife.

Wildlife Photography Fieldcraft
By: Susan Young
Paperback | August 2022 | Pelagic Publishing

 

 

 

 

This Week in Biodiversity News – 21st September 2022

Climate change

A new report shows that Australia is funding just one-tenth of its fair share of global climate action. The study by Oxfam and ActionAid Australia is calling on Australia to increase its climate finance commitments to $3bn, ahead of COP27 this November. Currently, Australia has only committed $400m a year between 2020 and 2025 for international climate funding. For Australia to meet its fair share of the dedicated $100bn fund agreed upon in 2009, its contributions must be $4bn annually from 2025.

Both wild and farmed Atlantic salmon are threatened by warming waters. The climate crisis is warming the world’s rivers and oceans. As warmer water contains less oxygen and simultaneously speeds up the salmon’s metabolism, increasing the need for oxygen, warmer temperatures are reducing salmon fitness, impacting their abilities to adapt to stressors. Studies by the North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization have shown that, from 2007 to 2016, only a single salmon survived its first year from 2,000 fertilised eggs, whereas prior to 1990, it would only require 1,000 fertilised eggs.

Atlantic salmon parr by E. Peter Steenstra/USFWS via Flickr

The UN has warned that the world is ‘heading in the wrong direction’ as the impacts of climate change worsen. The 2022 United in Science report has shown that there are five times as many weather, climate and water-related disasters as there were 50 years ago. The last seven years (2015-2021) have also been the warmest on record, with a 93% chance that at least one of the next five years could be hotter than 2016, the warmest year on record. To meet the 1.5°C goal set out in the Paris Agreement, current emissions reductions need to be seven times higher than they are now.

Research

A study has created a new framework to change how sharks, rays and chimaera species are considered in the design of protected areas. This will hopefully help provide the protection they need in the face of extinction. Sharks are apex predators and play a vital role in the functioning of balanced ecosystems, shaping communities and ensuring biodiversity. They’re threatened by fishing practices, either as targets or as by-catch, as well as negative public images which can lead to culls. By ensuring that the most up-to-date information is provided to governing bodies, policies and protected areas can be designed to ensure the protection of these species.

Hariotta raleighana, a long-nosed chimaera, by NOAA Ocean Exploration via Flickr

Satellites are now able to measure the thickness of sea ice in the Arctic Ocean all year round. Previously, spacecraft struggled to measure the state of sea ice in summer as the presence of surface meltwater confused instruments. Now, using ‘deep learning’ techniques, scientists are able to get reliable observations across all seasons. This will help to improve monitoring the impacts of climate change, while also aiding weather forecasting.

Researchers have found the world’s oldest heart preserved inside a fossilised prehistoric fish.  The 380 million-year-old heart was made in Western Australia and captures a key moment in the development of the heart found in all back-boned animals. Soft tissues are far less likely to be preserved than bones but the minerals of the Gogo rock formation preserved many of the fish’s internal organs, including its liver and stomach.

Conservation

A fungal outbreak is threatening the tricoloured bat with extinction in the US. White-nose syndrome, which disrupts the crucial winter hibernation of bats, is ravaging tricolour bat populations, as well as populations of a dozen other North American species, including the northern long-eared bat. Both of these species have been recommended for endangered designation by  The US Fish and Wildlife Service.

Female tricoloured bat by NABat via Flickr

Two adult grey wolves, along with two cubs, have been spotted in Oregon’s Cascade mountains, giving hope that the federal protections restored earlier this year are aiding the recovery of this endangered species. After decades of hunting across the US, Oregon recorded only 14 individual wolves at the end of 2009. Since then, following protections from the Endangered Species Act, the population has grown to 175 individuals in 2021.

Cheetahs have been released in India for the first time, 70 years after they went extinct. Eight cheetahs were flown into the northern Indian city of Gwalior from Namibia. They have been released into a fenced enclosure in Kuna National Park for their quarantine period over the next month, before being released into a larger enclosure containing natural prey. Their release into the wild is controversial, particularly as a population boom of another of India’s predators, the tiger, has led to increased conflict with people sharing the same areas.

Pollution

A Coalmine wastewater spill has turned a creek in Royal national park, Sydney, to black sludge. This is the third coal pollution incident involving Peabody Energy’s Metropolitan mine this year. The Environment Protection Agency of New South Wales have collected water samples and are conducting further assessments to determine the ecological impacts of this event. There is concern that this pollution may impact the state government’s plans to reintroduce platypuses to the area.

Book Review: Goshawk Summer: The Diary of an Extraordinary Season in the Forest

Winner of the James Cropper Wainwright Prize for Nature Writing 2022. 

Chronicled in Goshawk Summer: The Diary of an Extraordinary Season in the Forest, wildlife cameraman James Aldred is given the once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to film a goshawk nest during the first few months of the pandemic. Having just completed a migration himself, returning home after filming a cheetah family in Kenya, he was commissioned to begin filming in the New Forest. However, after the adventures of finding a suitable nest and planning how to set up the shoot, lockdown began. The everyday hustle and bustle of everyone going about their daily lives stopped. In the spring months of 2020, with everyone staying at home, no cars on the road, the absence of aeroplane vapour trails crisscrossing the sky, an eerie quiet descended. And perhaps most importantly, lockdown meant no more visitors to the New Forest – except for James.

After harpy eagle attacks, being chased by venomous snakes, and almost being knocked out of a tree by an elephant, you’d think Aldred wouldn’t have much excitement for our native wildlife. However, the awe that Aldred has for not just goshawks but for many of our species shines through in this book. For all its named ‘Goshawk Summer’, this book reads like an ode to the threatened aspects of Wild Britain. It is a whistle-stop tour of our countryside, from instructions on the management of heathland and the place muntjac have in our ecosystems, to the plight of the Dartmoor warbler, pine martens, and the curlew, and even the cultural relationship we have with foxes.

Northern goshawk chick by Andrey Gulivanov via Flickr

The wealth of experience he has gained over 25 years of working in the industry is clear throughout this book. Passages are filled with rich tidbits of wildlife encounters, such as the time he found all six native reptile species in one morning. Each sighting and mention of a species is accompanied by a short tale or a piece of history. Often, these sightings are compared to Alred’s experiences with more exotic ones, such as the pine marten with the yellow-throated marten in Borneo, a group of tumbling fox cubs with the cheetah family in Kenya, and the goshawk as “our very own mini-harpy”. It is a welcome reminder that UK wildlife can be just as magical and mysterious as that of far-flung places.

Goshawk by Andy Morffew via Flickr

Written from field notes kept at the time, the internationally experienced wildlife cameraman dives into the wildlife of his childhood haven of the New Forest. He describes the lack of human activity and disturbance as a glimpse into paradise, which, through his engaging observations, we too can experience. The goshawks are the true highlight of this book, as Aldred gives us a window into the seemingly timeless forest away from the jumble and stress of modern life. Following the weeks and months of Aldred’s shoot, we see the day-to-day workings of a goshawk nest and the trials and tribulations of a species once hunted to extinction. While watching the development from eggs to fully fledged juveniles, Aldred tells the history of this previously highly persecuted species.

As lockdown eased and travel was allowed, the spell is broken and it seems that suddenly everyone is using natural spaces. Car parks and roads fill and forest paths become alive with walkers, music and cyclers. Unfortunately, while many reported this as the public’s increasing appreciation for our natural landscapes, Aldred has a different opinion. With the pandemic always running in the background, he documents the impacts of the sudden rush to reenter the world. From the increase in noise, litter, risky barbeques, irresponsible drivers and dog owners, the newfound peace of the New Forest seems shattered. The forest is described as a habitat that “has been abused for centuries” and Aldred reaffirms the emerging narrative that we should step back to give nature space to breathe and recover. Throughout Goshawk Summer, Aldred issues a strong call for people to be more conscious and considerate of their behaviour in nature, particularly around nesting bird season.

Returning in February 2021, almost eight months after watching the goshawk chicks fledge, Aldred once again encounters the goshawk female. He notes a feeling of elsewhereness within the forest, of outside being England and inside “somewhere much further north”. Goshawk Summer mirrors this, providing a fascinating glimpse into the perspective of a wildlife cameraman and a welcome break from the clutter of the outside world. This book was awarded the James Cropper Wainwright Prize for Nature Writing 2022.

Goshawk Summer: The Diary of an Extraordinary Season in the Forest
By: James Aldred
Paperback | June 2022

 

 

 

 

The NHBS Introduction to Habitats: Sand Dunes

Sand dunes in New Brighton, Merseyside, UK by Andrew Mason via Flickr

Coastal sand dunes are habitats created by sand, seashell fragments and other sediments that are moved by wave and wind action along a coastline or beach until they become trapped above the strandline. This usually occurs where vegetation is growing as their roots and leaves help to bind the sand together, preventing the sand from being blown away by the wind. There are several different types of sand dunes, categorised by their position on the shoreline, age, morphology and stability:

  • Embryo dunes: The youngest dunes at their earliest stage of development, usually closest to the shore and may still be covered by high tides. This area usually has high salinity and is a very dry environment with rapid drainage and a lot of exposure. 
  • Mobile dunes: These are dunes that are no longer covered by the highest tide but are still affected by wind; sand gets blown from the beach onto, over and away from these areas. 
  • Semi-fixed dunes: This is where vegetation cover has become more continuous with fewer areas of bare sand.
  • Fixed dunes: These are dunes that have very limited free space, with few areas of bare sand and almost continuous vegetation. 
  • Dune slack: The low-lying depressions between sand dunes. These areas can often become filled with fresh or brackish water, creating small wetlands known as interdunal wetlands or interdunal ponds. These areas can warm quickly as they’re often very shallow, providing an ideal habitat for many invertebrates. 
  • Dune scrub: A later successional stage, where a stable dune has been colonised with scrub species. These areas can continue to develop into dune-heath and older woodland. 

Sand dunes can be rich in wildlife and are important habitats for birds, reptiles, invertebrates, a variety of plant species, lichens and fungi. This is particularly the case in older, more stable dune habitats. They are classified as UK BAP Priority Habitat and several Priority List species have been recorded utilising sand dunes.

What species can you find here?
Flora

Differences in flora diversity can be found depending on the position, age, morphology and stability of the dunes. Sand dunes that are still inundated at high tide can be dominated by halophilic (salt-tolerant) plants, whereas dune slack areas may be filled with fresh groundwater, allowing them to support several freshwater plant species. Areas of low stability will most likely see lower plant diversity, with the community present dominated by pioneer species. More stable dunes are generally dominated by woody plants and have higher diversity.

Sea sandwort (Honckenya peploides)

S. Rae via Flickr

This is one of several pioneer species usually found in embryo dunes, as it is highly stress-tolerant. These plants allow sand to begin to accumulate, raising the top of the dune above the high tide level, while also adding organic matter to the sand through dying and decaying. This allows the sand dune to better retain water, allowing other plants to colonise the area.

Marram grass (Ammophila arenaria)

Jeremy Halls via Flickr

This is a dune building grass as it is tall and robust, with matted roots, therefore it is very effective at trapping and stabilising sand. It can help to form very high mobile dunes as it grows at a rate of 1m per year. It is usually the dominant plant on mobile dunes and is a familiar sight on many of our coasts. By stabilising the sand and adding nutrients through its dead leaves, this plant can allow sand dunes to be colonised by many other plant species.

Harebell (Campanula rotundifolia)

Aecole2010 via Flickr

As sand dunes become more fixed and vegetation cover becomes more continuous, the area can be very species-rich. Many wildflowers, including harebells, can be found there, providing a food source for species such as invertebrates. Due to the wide range of environmental factors in these habitats, such as wind, salinity levels and availability of shelter and fresh water, there is often a huge variety of wildflowers.

Harebells, also called bluebells of Scotland, are tough and resilient plants, living in dry, open areas such as sand dunes.  While their flowering period can vary, it’s usually from July to November in the British Isles, providing a vital source of nectar for bees during the autumn.

For more examples of wildflowers, check out our guide to UK wild flower identification.

Silver birch (Betula pendula)

Andrew Gustar via Flickr

The final successional stages of sand dunes include colonisation by woody plants, creating dune scrubs and, finally, deciduous woodland. These woodland are often lower in species diversity, as woody species out-compete others, but the habitat will remain stable for extended periods, barring any disturbance. The type of vegetation present in the climax stage is determined by a number of factors, such as climate, exposure, soil pH, grazing level and management type. Birch trees are one of the woody species that can colonise sand dunes, particularly acidic dunes with open areas for young birch trees to grow.

Fungi

While fungi are usually associated with damper habitats, there is a variety that can be found in sand dune habitats, such as the earthtongue fungus (Glutinoglossum glutinosum), dune stinkhorn (Phallus hadriani) and several puffball species. There are also rare species that can only be found in sand dunes.

Dune waxcap (Hygrocybe conicoides)

Lukas Large via Flickr

This species of waxcap occurs mainly on short grass in coastal sand dune habitats, such as on the edges of dune slacks. Waxcaps, fungi in the genus of agarics, or gilled fungi, are usually brightly coloured fungi with dry to waxy caps. They are mainly associated with unimproved grasslands, though outside of Europe they are more commonly found in woodland. Dune waxcaps resemble the blackening waxcap (Hygrocybe conica) when young, but older dune waxcaps only darken slightly, usually just on their stem, unlike the blackening waxcap.

Collared Earthstar (Geastrum triplex)

Yankech gary via Flickr

While collared earthstars are most likely found in woodlands, particularly those with a high level of leaf litter, they can also be found on sand dunes. This star-shaped fungus initially looks like a ball, similar to a puffball, before splitting open. Other earthstars, including the dwarf earthstar (Geastrum schmidelii), can also be found in sand dune habitats, particularly mature sand dune systems. They’re often found in colonies with several fruitbodies growing together.

Fauna

Sand dunes support a diverse range of fauna species, many of which are specifically adapted to live in these dynamic habitats. Similarly to shingle beaches, which will be covered in another article, this area is a key habitat for several ground-nesting birds, such as the Ringed Plover and Skylarks, grazing species such as rabbits, and invertebrates such as bees, digger wasps and other insects.

The red-banded sand wasp (Ammophila sabulosa)

Volkmar Becher via Flickr

Sand wasps reproduce by hunting caterpillars, paralysing them using their sting and burying them in burrows with the sand wasp’s egg. The females dig their burrows in sandy ground, with a nearby area of vegetation that would support their prey. Areas of sand dunes can be rich in invertebrate species, particularly where diverse vegetation is present.

Northern Dune Tiger Beetle (Cicindela hybrida)

David Tyler via Flickr

This rare beetle hunts on bare sand, preying on ants, spiders, moth larvae and flies. As they need areas of open, moving sand, they are less likely to be found in older, more stabilised sand dunes. Therefore, lack of management allowing succession and reduced sediment deposition due to development or flood defences reduce the availability of suitable habitats. Conservation efforts to restore mobile sands and remove areas of scrub are helping to provide more habitats for the northern dune tiger beetle. 

Sand lizard (Lacerta agilis)

xulescu_g via Flickr

Sand dunes support a variety of vertebrate species, including the sand lizard, one of the UK’s rarest reptiles. Their distribution is restricted to a small number of sites, such as protected heathlands and sand dunes. They require sunny habitats with vegetation for shelter and undisturbed, open sand to lay their eggs. Their numbers are impacted by habitat loss but there are several conservation efforts working towards increasing their populations. These involve a combination of habitat restoration, monitoring, reintroduction and encouraging beneficial policies and practices.

Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus)

Female. Andy Morffew via Flickr
Male. Caroline legg via Flickr

Several birds of prey use sand dune habitats as hunting grounds due to the presence of ground-nesting birds, lizards and some grazing species such as rabbits. Sparrowhawks can be found across Britain and Ireland, mainly in gardens, woodland and urban settings, but they can also be found on sand dunes, particularly if woodland is close by. They prey mainly on small birds, but they have also been recorded taking bats.

Chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax)

gailhampshire via Flickr

Once extinct in Britain, Choughs now have a growing population on the Cornish and Welsh coasts, as well as a few other spots around the UK. They hunt invertebrates and larvae in the exposed sandy soils of sand dunes, using their long, curved bills. With only a small population in the UK, it is important to maintain suitable areas of habitats, therefore a number of projects are reintroducing grazing species to dunes. These species help to maintain areas of open ground and short grass, preventing sand dunes from becoming scrubland.

For more information on other species that may occur in sand dune habitats, including reptiles, coastal birds, waders and other mammal and bird species, check out some of our other guides to UK species identification.

Threats

The main threats to coastal sand dunes are development, recreational use, flood defences, falling water tables, climate change, invasive species and poor management. The development of housing, industry and areas such as golf courses can result in the damage or destruction of sand dune habitats. This, along with recreational use, such as excessive pedestrian and vehicular use, can increase levels of erosion and modify vegetation. Fragile sand dune habitats can be altered, reducing their stability and their ability to support diverse wildlife.

Poor management allows encroachment by shrubs and trees that, if left unchecked, could turn sand dune habitats into woodland areas, which can impact their suitability for specialist species. Flood defences can impact the natural processes of sediment removal and deposition, which can prevent sand dunes from developing or growing. These areas can become depleted if there is not enough sediment deposited to replace the amount removed by wind or wave action. The creation of harbours and other coastal structures can also disrupt natural sediment processes. Alternatively, these structures can also prevent sediment removal, causing a build-up of sediment.

Further threats include invasive species, such as cordgrass (Spartina anglica), which can dominate sand dunes, reducing the abundance and diversity of native plant species and reducing the number of animals that the area can support. Climate change can also threaten this habitat, as increasing intensity and frequency of storms can impact how sand dunes are formed. Sea-level rise, in combination with development, can also reduce the amount of area available for this habitat to form; this is termed coastal squeeze.

While grazing is used as a method for controlling over-stabilisation and succession, overgrazing can also impact sand dunes. It can reduce the development and spread of vegetation, preventing sand stabilisation and, therefore, reducing the diversity and abundance of the species the habitat can support. This also allows sand dunes to become depleted by wave or wind action, particularly where structures such as flood defences and development have reduced sediment deposition.

Conservation

To manage the impacts of these threats, many sand dune areas have been given Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) designations, which control the amount of development that can occur. Soft engineering approaches to flood defences including beach replenishment, the restoration of stabilised sand dunes and managed realignment, where areas are allowed to be inundated by the sea, can often be a more natural approach to reducing the impacts of waves compared to hard engineerings, such as sea walls and breakwaters. These can allow the natural process of sediment removal and deposition, facilitating the development of new sand dune environments.

As mentioned, sand dunes are subject to natural habitat succession, often ending in a stable deciduous woodland habitat. To maintain sand dune habitats, encroachment by woody species must be controlled and areas of open, mobile sand should be created as this prevents soil development and, therefore, over-stabilisation.

Areas of significance

Lindisfarne National Nature Reserve, Northumberland

Braunton Burrows, North Devon

Holkham NNR, North Norfolk

Kenfig NNR, Glamorgan, South Wales

Forvie NNR, Aberdeenshire, Scotland

Further reading

The Biology of Coastal Sand Dunes

Coastal zones are becoming increasingly topical as they face relentless pressure from a number of threats. This book provides a comprehensive introduction to the formation, dynamics, maintenance and perpetuation of coastal sand dune systems.

 

Sand Dune Conservation, Management and Restoration

This book deals with the development of temperate coastal sand dunes and the way these have been influenced by human activity. Options for management are considered and the likely consequences of taking a particular course of action highlighted.

 

Field Guide to Coastal Wildflowers of Britain, Ireland and Northwest Europe

This field guide covers more than 600 species of wildflowers and other coastal flora found in Britain and Ireland, and coastal mainland north-west Europe. Detailed species accounts describe the wildflowers, grasses, sedges and rushes that occur on the coast or in abundance within sight of the sea.

 

Wildflowers of the Sefton Coast

This book describes the typical wildflowers associated with each of the Sefton Coast’s main habitats from the saltmarshes and ‘green beaches’ to the sand-dunes; the latter showing a sequence of successional stages running inland, from the newly-formed strandline and embryo dunes, through mobile and fixed-dunes to older woodland and dune-heath.

 

Beaches and Coasts

A new edition of a unique textbook that provides an exhaustive treatment of the world’s different coasts, with a focus on climate change sea-level rise. Seeking to better educate students and readers about the sustainability of coasts and coastal environment, this exciting book offers enlightening coverage of coastal geology, processes and environments.

Beach and Dune Restoration

This new edition continues the theme of the first edition: the need to restore the biodiversity, ecosystem health, and ecosystem services provided by coastal landforms and habitats, especially in the light of climate change. This will be valuable for coastal scientists, engineers, planners, and managers, as well as shorefront residents

 

Sea of Sand: A History of Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve

The Great Sand Dunes sprawl along the eastern fringes of the vast San Luis Valley of south-central Colorado. Sea of Sands is the definitive history of the natural, cultural, and political forces that helped shape this incomparable landscape.

This Week in Biodiversity News – 5th September 2022

Climate change

This summer was England’s hottest on record, tied with 2018. The average temperature in June, July and August was 17.1°C. Four out of the five warmest summers have occurred since 2003, with records stretching back to 1884. Hot and dry conditions are causing river levels to drop, crop damage and wildfires across England.

East Yorkshire has launched a climate change consultation, inviting residents and those who work in the area to contribute to the local authority’s response. Attendees will get a first look at the draft Climate Change Strategy developed by East Riding of Yorkshire Council, which will highlight opportunities for future action. A survey has also been created to gather people’s views on climate change from across the authority area.

Research

Ecologists are using the latest dental scanning technology to study young coral, monitoring coral size and growth. This method is said to have reduced surveying time by 99%. Dr Kate Quigley, a senior research scientist, has developed a new non-destructive method for rapidly and safely scanning coral, using an ITero Element 5D Flex dental scanner. Because coral and teeth are both calcium-based, the scanner works effectively, allowing scientists to measure thousands of tiny coral quickly, accurately and without any negative impacts on the health of the coral.

Conservation

A flock of European bee-eaters have migrated south for the winter after successfully hatching chicks in the UK. The arrival of the breeding colony in Trimingham, Norfolk, in June was described by the RSPB as a “red alert for global warming,” as they are more commonly found in the southern Mediterranean and northern Africa. Nesting bee-eaters are occurring in the UK as hotter, drier summers become more common. While they eat a variety of flying insects, including many bee species, this small colony is not expected to have had any impact on local bee populations.

European Bee-eater by Francesco Veronesi via Flickr

Water voles have been reintroduced into the New Forest, two decades after they became locally extinct. In 1998, 7000 American Mink were released from a fur farm by animal rights activists, inadvertently resulting in the loss of the local population of endangered water voles. The Environment Agency released 50 captive-bred water voles into an area near Ringwood, joining a few wild voles relocated from Salisbury. Another 50 will be introduced to the same area next spring, with the hope that the population will reach 1,000 by 2027.

A rare sea slug, Babakina anadoni, has been spotted in Cornwall, marking only the second time this species has been seen in UK waters. The first sighting was made by a Seasearch volunteer just a few weeks ago off the Isles of Scilly. Their larval stage is thought to have drifted in on ocean currents, with the adults surviving due to favourable conditions. Only a few individuals have been spotted around the world, mostly in warm waters off the west coast of Spain, as well as Portugal, France, Brazil and the Caribbean.

Babakina anadoni by Carlos Fernandez-Cid via Flickr

Policy

A ban on offshore oil and gas exploration by Shell has been upheld by a South African court. Due to the loud shock waves that would occur every 10 seconds for the five-month period, it is thought that the seismic waves used to explore the Indian Ocean coast for oil and gas would have a negative impact on whales and other marine life in the area. These surveys have been found to disrupt marine communication, navigation and eating habits, which are essential to the survival of marine life. They also damage fish air bladders, marine eggs and larvae and can cause species to temporarily migrate away from the affected area. This may have knock-on effects on local fisheries.

Pollution

A grounded ship that collided with a gas tanker off the coast of Gibraltar has begun to leak fuel oil into the sea. A significant leak was discovered, though 80% of the ship’s diesel fuel has now been removed. Booms have been deployed to limit the spread of the oil, and skimmers are being used to recover the oil from the surface. Spanish authorities believe that a full clean-up can be achieved.

River water testing fell to a 10-year low last year, with only 41,519 samples tested compared to 100,000 in 2012. Experts warn that this is causing a ‘vacuum of knowledge’ about river pollution and its effects. The decrease in monitoring has coincided with repeated cuts to the Environment Agency budget. Pollution risks increase with low-flowing rivers, such as the conditions brought on by recent droughts, because the concentration of pollutants increases.

This Week in Biodiversity News – 17th August 2022

Climate change

There is widespread drought and water shortages across parts of Europe, including areas of England and Germany (where water levels in the Rhine River have dropped significantly), as well as France, Italy, Spain, Netherlands and Belgium. This is Europe’s most severe drought in decades, with high temperatures and reduced rainfall testing infrastructure and water supplies. England experienced the driest July since 1935, with only 35% of average rainfall for the month falling. Other rivers such as the Danube and the Po have been impacted, threatening wildlife.

Research

Most sharks killed for fins are at risk of extinction. A new study has found that more than two-thirds of sharks hunted and used in the global fin trade are at risk of extinction. By studying 9,820 shark fin trimmings from markets in Hong Kong between 2014 to 2018 using DNA analysis, the researchers found 86 different species. Of these, 61 are threatened with extinction. The majority of fins came from blue sharks which are classified as “near threatened” by the IUCN, with the other top species including silky sharks, hammerheads, makos and threshers. 

Self-pollinating plants are showing rapid loss of genetic variation. Flowering species that can self-pollinate lost genetic diversity within only nine generations without bumblebees. A new study has found that monkeyflower plants lost between 13–24% of their genetic variation compared to a group that was propagated by bumblebees. Reducing genetic diversity can limit a species’ ability to adapt to environmental changes, like those brought on by climate change. This study highlights the importance of pollinator species in combating the impacts of the climate crisis.

Conservation

Derbyshire conservationists aim to save Swifts by pushing housebuilders to install nesting bricks. These hollow bricks provide a nesting area for one of the UK’s most endangered birds, whose population has dropped by 65% in the last 25 years. The Derbyshire Swift Conservation Project, run by Derbyshire Wildlife Trust, aims to raise awareness of Swifts. This aim is now increasingly being included in planning applications for new housing. 

Cornish Choughs have had a bumper year, 20 years since the first Cornish-born Choughs were seen once again. Over 70 youngsters are being raised by 25 pairs, bringing the total population to around 200 birds. Just a single pair successfully fledged young in 2002 and now Choughs can be seen all over Cornwall.

Critically endangered Albatrosses are being plagued by mice on Gough Island. This small British overseas territory in the South Atlantic is home to the Triston Albatross, along with 21 other seabird species. Mice were introduced to the island accidentally over two hundred years ago. With no existing predators, the mouse population exploded, leading to a decline in seeds and insects. In response to this drop in food supply, some mice began to prey on seabird chicks. Last year, there was an attempt to eradicate this invasive species by dropping poisoned mouse bait all over the island but this attempt failed. The mice are now once again spreading across the island.

In brighter news, the saiga antelope population has increased 10-fold after a mass die-off in 2015. A fatal bacterial disease killed around half of the population, leaving only 130,000 animals. Now, an estimated 1.3 million saiga are living in the steppe grasslands of Kazakhstan. After being hunted to the brink of extinction, numbers were down to less than 40,000 in 2005. This new increase is the result of land protections and hunting bans, which have allowed the species to begin recovering.

Policy

The US Senate has passed a sweeping climate, tax and healthcare package, which will increase corporate tax, lower the cost of some medicines and, importantly for the fight against climate change, reduce carbon emissions. The $700bn (£577bn) economic package includes $369bn (£305bn) dedicated to climate action, the largest climate investment in US history. This will be split into multiple projects, including speeding up the production of clean technology, providing tax credits for those who buy an electric car and funding for communities that have suffered the most from fossil fuel pollution.

Endangered species breeding programmes are under threat due to new EU regulations. The EU Animal Health Regulation came into force in April 2021, after being agreed in 2016, creating new controls on the import of animals and plants into the EU. These new sanitary and phytosanitary checks must be carried out at border control posts, but few exist at airports in the EU and none at French ports. Before December 2020, there were an average of 1,400 transfers of species between the UK and other EU countries in order for breeding programmes to keep the gene pool as broad as possible. But since Brexit, there were just 56 in 2021, and so far this year, there have only been 84. The lack of checking posts has effectively banned the import of any large animal, potentially preventing the breeding of certain endangered species, such as the black rhino.