Whether you are a budding mycologist or a creative naturalist, spore printing can be a fantastic way to learn more about the intricate biology of fungi, and offers a unique glimpse into their inner structure. It is quick, simple and requires few resources to get started, allowing you to uniquely capture fantastic detail in just a few hours.
In this beginner’s guide, we delve into why we make spore prints and share how to capture the perfect print for identification or decoration.
What are spores?
Spores are the primary reproductive unit of fungi, consisting of haploid cells that contain the genetic material required to reproduce. They are generally released from the gills or pores located underneath the cap of the mushroom, where they are then distributed through the environment via air currents or animal movement.Once the spores have landed on a substrate with a suitable growing environment, they form hyphal threads, gradually building a mycelial network. When environmental conditions are ideal, the mycelium will develop to produce the widely-recognised, and widely loved mushroom fruiting body.
Why make a spore print?
Spore prints are used for a range of reasons and are an essential skill for budding mycologists.
For those interested in mycology, or even foraging for food, spore prints can help with fungal identification by analysing the shape, size, colour, pattern and density of spores (although exercise caution with foraged goods as spore printing alone is not a reliable form of identification).It is also possible to observe spore characteristics microscopically to aid in identification, which can be done by obtaining a print on a microscope slide.
For collectors and enthusiasts, it is possible to grow your own mushrooms using the spores collected with this technique, and many others choose to simply admire their intricate biology with this informative process.
A glass or bowl, depending on the size of the specimen
Artists lacquer spray (hair spray will also work)
Method:
Find a suitable mushroom and ensure that the fruit is mature. This technique works with gilled and pored mushrooms, bracket fungi and oyster-shaped mushrooms.
With a sharp knife, carefully remove the stipe as close to the cap as possible, without disturbing the gills around the stem.
Place the cap gills-down onto a piece of paper. For darker coloured spores, use white paper for a clearer print, and vice versa for white spores. If you wish to grow mushrooms from gathered spores, foil is often chosen for its sterility and glass is preferred for those wishing to observe spores under a microscope.
Cover the cap with a glass or bowl, depending on the size and let it sit for up to 12 hours. Covering the mushroom creates an air trap, allowing the spores to fall directly onto the material used for the print.
After 12 hours, remove the cover and allow to fully dry for a day or two. If you are planning to display your print, lightly (!) spritz with artists’ lacquer spray or hairspray to secure the spores.
To safely store spore prints, fold over and secure in a sealed bag at room temperature, or frozen if you plan to cultivate in the future.
Recommended Reading:
The Lives of Fungi
Filled with stunning photographs, this book invites the mycologically curious for an insider look into the hidden world of our planet’s diverse decomposers.
Collins Fungi Guide
A richly illustrated guide to the fungi of Britain and Ireland, this book ensures clear, detailed descriptions for accurate identification.
Mushrooms and Toadstools of Britain and Europe, Volume 1
This third edition illustrates over 650 species in stunning watercolour and features drawings of spores and other useful microscopic features to aid identification.
Opticron Hand Lens 23mm 10x Magnification
An essential part of any naturalist’s field kit, a hand lens will allow you to observe the finer details.
Dissection Kit
Equipped with a range of tools, this dissection kit is suited to mycologists, botanists and entomologists alike, and features a scalpel and forceps for sample manipulation.
Mycology Field Beginners Kit
This comprehensive kit equips you with all the essentials to observe and document fungi in any weather, including a 10x magnification hand lens, weatherproof notebook and four waterproof identification guides to gilled fungi, non-gilled fungi, grassland fungi and common fungi.
Foraging for food is an easy way to connect people of all ages with nature. Some of us may forage unknowingly while picking juicy blackberries in the summer months, and some of us may be unaware of the vast array of edibles around us throughout the year. Here we have selected a handful of items to forage through autumn and winter, highlighting where you can find them and their culinary uses.
It is important to be certain of your identification, so if you are unsure, check all foraged foods with a professional as some plants have toxic look-alikes. Remember to forage responsibly by leaving plenty behind for wildlife and allow plants to set seed or spore for regeneration.
Identification: With its distinctive appearance, this bracket fungus is instantly recognisable. It has an oyster-shaped cap, that can be white, cream, grey or tan in colour and measures up to 25cm across. The gills underneath can vary in thickness with age, but are generally white or cream in colour.
Distribution: Oyster mushrooms can be found throughout the year in large numbers, but they are most commonly seen in the winter months growing on deciduous hardwoods, such as beech.
Culinary Uses: Oyster mushrooms have a meaty texture and a mild, nutty flavour. They have a diversity of culinary applications and are often used to substitute meat due to their fleshy texture. They can be sauteed, stir fried, grilled and roasted, or used as an ingredient in soups, stews, risottos and pasta.
Did you know? Oyster Mushrooms are carnivorous and can digest nematodes (microscopic, unsegmented worms).
Identification: Growing in overlapping tiers, Velvet Shank Mushroom caps can measure up to 7cm in diameter and 10cm in height. The caps are bright orange, with a pale edge and a darker area towards the middle, which interestingly becomes slimy to the touch in wet weather. The gills are broad and white, turning yellow with maturity and the stalk is fibrous and soft.
Distribution: The dense clusters of this fungus can be found on dead and decaying broadleaved trees from late autumn to early spring. It is fairly common throughout the UK and can be found on the stumps and trunks of hardwood trees. The fungus shows a preference for elm, but can also be found on beech, oak and Hawthorn.
Culinary Uses: Velvet Shank has a sweet, nutty flavour and a chewy texture. They are only edible once cooked, and can be used in soups, casseroles and stews, or can be preserved using oil or vinegar for use throughout the season. For improved texture, the skin and stalks should be removed during preparation.
Did you know? Velvet Shank Mushrooms are one of few species that can be found in December because they can survive frost and being frozen solid.
Beefsteak Fungus (Fistulina hepatica)
Image by Ancient Woods and Trees Project via Flickr
Identification: Also known as Ox-tongue Fungus due to its resemblance as a young fungus, this bracket fungus grows up to 25cm in diameter and 6cm in thickness. The upper surface is a deep red and it has a cream-coloured underside that is covered with small pores.
Where/when: Beefsteak Fungus can be found from late summer to autumn and is common in broadleaved woodland. It can be spotted close to the ground on tree trunks and stumps, particularly Sweet Chestnut and oaks.
Culinary Uses: This fungus has a marbled, rubbery texture and a slightly sour, acidic flavour. It can be eaten raw when sliced thinly but is more commonly cooked in larger chunks. During preparation, Beefsteak Fungus should be simmered for a little while to soften the flesh.
Did you know? Beefsteak fungus will ooze a watery blood-like substance when cut.
Identification: Chestnuts grow on Sweet Chestnut trees; a large deciduous species which can grow up to 35m in height. It has long, toothed leaves that can grow up to 28cm in length and its flowers are long, yellow catkins. Sweet Chestnuts produce fruit cases that are covered in soft green spikes, and inside these cases are up to three shiny brown chestnuts.
Distribution: Sweet Chestnut trees are mostly found in south-east England in woodlands, towns and gardens. The chestnuts begin to drop from October and can be found until early winter.
Culinary Uses: Chestnuts can be baked, boiled, roasted, candied or stored in syrup. Before cooking, a cross should be scored on the bottom to prevent them from exploding. Once cooked and peeled, chestnuts can be used in cakes and stuffing and are often enjoyed as a festive treat.
Did you know? In the UK, it is believed that Sweet Chestnut trees were introduced by the Romans as a source of flour.
Identification: These seeds are foraged from the Walnut tree, a large, broadleaved deciduous species that can grow up to 35m in height. The bark of the Walnut is smooth and olive-brown in colour, which fades to grey as the tree matures. The pinnate leaves have up to nine pairs of leaflets, with one terminal leaflet at the end and the tree has long, yellow green coloured catkins. The brown, wrinkled walnuts can be found inside a green husk which splits as it ripens and can be picked from late autumn.
Distribution: A common and widespread species throughout the UK, Walnut trees can be found on farmland, towns, parks and gardens.
Culinary Uses: Walnuts are a popular snack and can be incorporated into several dishes, sweet or savoury. They can be eaten raw, roasted, fried or pickled.
Did you know? Walnut leaves are said to smell of furniture polish when crushed.
Hazelnuts, Hazel Tree (Corylus avellana)
Image by hedera.baltica via Flickr
Identification: Mature Hazel trees grow to around 12m tall and are easily identified by their leaves. They are soft to the touch, with a round shape, pointed tip and serrated edges. The flowers consist of yellow cylindrical catkins that hang in clusters from mid-February, giving way to the oval fruits which hang in groups of around four and are surrounded by leafy bracts.
Distribution: Common and widespread across the UK, Hazel trees can be found in woods, hedgerows, parks and gardens. Hazelnuts are present from late August and are ready to harvest up to October when the husks are golden brown and begin to split.
Culinary Uses: Once ripened in a dark, dry place, hazelnuts can be roasted or baked, and used to create stuffing, nut butters, pastry fillings and traditional festive confectionary.
Identification: Stinging Nettles can be easily identified by their dull, serrated leaves that, along with the rest of the plant, are covered in small, stinging hairs that deliver an itchy sting when brushed. The stem is square, and the flowers are small and green, resembling catkins with no petals.
Distribution: Stinging Nettles are common and widespread throughout the UK and can be found in woodland, grassland, hedges, roadsides and wasteland from Spring to Autumn.
Culinary Uses: The shoots and leaves of Stinging Nettles are extremely versatile in the kitchen and can be used in soups, risotto, pesto and popular herbal teas.
Did you know? It is thought that roman soldiers rubbed their bodies with nettles to keep warm and promote good circulation.
Identification: A small, annual herb in the mustard family, Hairy Bittercress grows to around 30cm in height. The compound leaves consist of small, rounded leaflets that are arranged in opposite pairs, forming a compact rosette close to the ground. The small, white flowers have four petals forming a cross shape and are around 1cm in diameter. The entire plant is covered in small, pale hairs.
Distribution: Common and widespread year-round, Hairy Bittercress can readily be found in the cracks in pavements, patios, walls and gardens. It prefers damp, shady areas but may also be found in heathland, coastal areas and moorland.
Culinary Uses: Although considered a weed, Hairy Bittercress has a wide range of culinary uses. It has a tangy, peppery flavour and can be used in salads, soups, salsa, or pesto, and can even be used to substitute cress and rocket. Picking leaves from the middle of the rosette is advised for the best flavour.
Identification: Growing up to 35m in height, Scots Pine trees are easily recognised by their straight, unbranched trunk and conical crown. The needles are grey green in colour and are arranged in twisted, bunched pairs with orange scented flowers that mature into green cones.
Distribution: Scots Pine are common and widespread throughout the northern hemisphere. Wild trees can be found in abundance in the Caledonian Pine Forest of Scotland and are widely planted elsewhere in the UK.
Culinary Uses: Scots Pine needles can be harvested throughout the year to make pestos, soups and stews. Young pine needles can be used to make tea or can be infused with oils to harness their citrusy, lemony flavour.
Identification: Rosehips come from the wild Dog Rose; a thorny, scrambling shrub with pale pink flowers. The flowers have five petals and yellow stamens that give rise to oval shaped, green seed pods known as rosehips. These eventually ripen to a vibrant red and contain numerous small seeds covered in irritating hairs.
Distribution: Dog Rose is common and widespread across the UK where it can be found year-round in hedgerows and woodland fringes. Rosehips appear around September after the rose has flowered, and last throughout the winter – they are ready to be picked when they feel plump and soft
Culinary Uses: Rosehips can be used to make jams, jellies and syrup for cordials, tea and desserts. Rosehip tea is commonly brewed with citrus fruits, lemongrass, dried fruit and honey for a vitamin C rich drink. These berries have also been used to infuse vinegars for a fragrant salad dressing. Rosehips cannot be eaten raw and must be cooked before ingestion. The irritating hairs around the seeds should also be removed during preparation.
Identification: Sloes grow on the Blackthorn tree, a black-barked scrub that grows to around 7 metres. Blackthorn has spiny, black-purple twigs and oval-shaped, toothed leaves which have pointed tips and a tapered base. Blackthorn trees produce small, white blossom in early spring, before the leaves develop. The sloes, which are the smallest fruit in the plum family, are blue-black berries around 1cm across. They can be picked from September to December and are known for their acidic taste.
Distribution: Blackthorn can be found in abundance in woodland, field edges and hedges throughout the UK.
Culinary Uses: It is recommended to pick sloes after the first frost for the best flavour, however this can be replicated by freezing and thawing the sloes at home. The tart flavour of sloe berries is favoured for preserves, wine and sloe gin. Historically, sloes have also been used to make tonics and syrups as health remedies.
Identification: The Elder tree is a deciduous species which can grow up to six metres in height and is identifiable by its toothed, oval leaves. Each compound leaf has up to seven leaflets, arranged in opposite pairs with a single leaflet at the top. The flowers of this tree, elderflowers, bloom between May and June. Clusters of white, five-petalled flowers appear with prominent yellow stamens, and umbels of dark elderberries form in late August.
Distribution: Elder trees can be found growing in a variety of conditions year-round, and are largely non-selective with their environment, which can include hedgerows, woodland, scrubland, grassland and urban green spaces.
Culinary Uses: Packed full of antioxidants and vitamins, elderberries have been used for centuries to support human health. These dark berries can be used to make wine, syrups, jams, cordials and can be incorporated into cakes and crumbles. Please note that elderberries should always be cooked before eating to neutralise cyanide compounds present within the fruit.
Mushrooms have always been on the fringes of both the web of life and science in general, existing in the brackets between plant and animal in the minds of many. The Kingdom Fungi has, much like its constituents, rarely burst out into the light from the dark corners of popular science, that is, until recently. The last few years have seen Fungi of all forms thrust to the forefront of popular literature and medical research, which has generated a wave of renewed interest in the big questions around our mycelial cousins (after all they are eukaryotic cells just as we are). Where do they live, what can they do for us? And how can modern science get under the bonnet (pun intended) of these elusive but ultimately extremely important organisms?
If this surge in interest has managed to pass you by, or if you are already a budding (pun also intended) enthusiast, then this non-exhaustive, short-list of books will bring you up to date on the history and present knowledge of mushrooms and touch on the cultural importance of these diverse eukaryotes.
How Mushrooms Can Heal, Shift Consciousness & Save the Planet
No list of mushroom focussed literature would be complete without mentioning one of the most influential figures in modern mushroom science, Paul Stamets, in cohort with some of the eminent minds of modern mushroom science and opinion. This book, which accompanies the Netflix documentary of the same name, covers many of the same topics but presents them in an accessible way with full referencing should you wish to take the topic further and research in your own time. The book covers a full complement of topics, ranging from the concept of a wood wide web of interconnected trees and fungal partners, to how chemical science can harness the unique biological properties of a range of mushroom species to give us vital and useful medicines, remedial chemistries, and solutions to some of our most pressing issues in modern life including national security,combatting bioweaponry, and pollution solutions on a global scale. Each page is accompanied by rich and detailed macro–photography characterising some of the unique and beautiful forms of these organisms and will leave a distinct impression that there is a whole world out there still waiting to be explored. The book closes with a dive into the what ifs that surround looking at the world with a mycelial lens and posits some interesting theories on the very sources of human existence and our co-evolution with mushrooms itself.
Citizen Science, Fungi Fanatics, and the Untapped Potential of Mushrooms
Hailed as ‘a natural sequel’ to Merlin Sheldrake’s Entangled Life.In Search of Mycotopia occupies very much the same area in most people’s libraries. An in depth and developed look beneath the often-elusive veil of the field of mycology and all itsintricacies, this book takes a human–centric approach to the social side of the recent explosion in citizen mushroom science and how its these people that are driving development in this field before the lumbering pharma giants are able to gain a foothold. Focussing on the open-source nature of how modern mushroom research is conducted, it covers a range of topics that may be familiar to those already interested in this field butis alsohighly accessible to those who have not been introduced tothis dynamic and interesting world. There is morenuance to the way that questions are asked around the great potential and almost utopic ideas that are posited in other mushroom literature, but this does not make this book any less inspiring or interesting and is a great hopping on point for the first stop on the mycelium express.
How Fungi Make Our Worlds, Change Our Minds and Shape Our Futures
Entangled Life is a colourful journey through one Merlin Sheldrake’s experiences with mushrooms and the niches which they occupy in everyday life.He adopts a ‘mushroom first’ perspective while investigating the reasons why mushrooms behave and perform in the way that they do, first leading with the ‘how’s,’ before following up with the ‘whys.’ Whether this is in a commercial, foraging, or clinical setting,seemingly the mycelium themselves posit the questions surrounding their unique biology and Merlin seeks to draw out answers and clarify what makes them so special to both us and the planet.He also leans on the cultural aspects of mycology and helps clarifyjust how important mushrooms have been in our history andarelikely to be in our future. This is an excellent book for those who want to build a strong foundation of knowledge for modern mushroom science but is also great for those who want to take a slightly deeper dive into the bigger questions surrounding mycology.The new illustrated edition is a pared-down version of the full-text version and instead replaces some of the larger passages of text with high quality macro photographs that are described in such rich detail in the original text.It is anexquisitegraphicaccompaniment to the original book.
Foraging for food is an easy way to connect people of all ages with nature. Some of us may forage unknowingly while picking juicy blackberries in the summer months, and some of us may be unaware of the vast array of edibles around us. Here we have selected a handful of items to forage through spring and summer, highlighting where you can find them and their culinary uses.
It is important to be certain of your identification, so if you are unsure, check all foraged foods with a professional because some plants have toxic look-alikes. Remember to forage responsibly by leaving plenty behind for wildlife and allowing plants to spore or set seed for regeneration.
Garlic Mustard, also known as Hedge Mustard or Jack-by-the-hedge, is a hairy herb in the mustard family. This plant has heart-shaped jagged leaves which emit a distinctive garlic odour when crushed, and has small, white flowers with cross-shaped petals. The species can grow up to 1m in height and can be found in woodland, hedgerows, cultivated land and on the borders of agricultural farmland. Each part of this plant is edible, but harvesting is best between March–April and July–September. Garlic mustard is best enjoyed before flower stalks develop, as this can create a bitter taste. The roots of this plant can be used as a substitute for pepper and horseradish and is said to taste like wasabi. The leaves have a garlicky flavour, and can be used as a replacement for traditional, store-bought garlic.
Wild Garlic (also called ramsons, bear garlic or broad-leaved garlic) is easily identified by its distinctive fragrance. When walking through areas of Wild Garlic, which are often found in large groups, you may catch a whiff of their characteristic garlic smell in the air. These areas are typically damp, shady woodland and can often be found with bluebells close by, as the pair have similar growing conditions. This plant can be seen from late winter till the end of spring, with flowers appearing in April/May. It has distinctive white, star-shaped flowers that grow in clusters. Their leaves are elongated, and when crushed release a pungent smell.
With a milder taste than shop-bought garlic, this plant is suitable for use in pastas, pesto’s and soups and can be infused into oils and vinegars. Only the flowers and leaves are edible, so it is best to leave the root to allow for regrowth – it is also worth noting that younger leaves are better for cooking, as older leaves can create bitter flavours. This plant can be confused with the poisonous Lily-of-the-valley, so it is best to smell the leaves before consuming them – alternatives will not have a distinctive garlic smell.
The Black Elder tree, a deciduous species, can grow to six metres in height and is identified by toothed, oval leaves. Each compound leaf has up to seven leaflets, arranged in opposite pairs with a single leaflet at the top. The flowers of this tree, elderflowers, bloom between May and June. Clusters of white, five-petalled flowers appear with prominent yellow stamens, and umbels of dark berries form in late August. Elderflowers can be found growing in a variety of conditions, and are largely non-selective with their environment, which can include hedgerows, woodland, scrubland, grassland and urban green spaces. Elderflowers have a long tradition of culinary use in the UK, using both berries and flowers for different purposes. Preserves, cordials, gins and puddings are all common uses of elderflower. The flowers can be eaten raw, but berries must be cooked before use. Elderflowers have a sweet and zesty taste and an aroma which is slightly lemony.
Although there are around 250 species of dandelion, here we refer to them collectively as they are difficult to distinguish from one another.
An instantly recognisable British wildflower, the dandelion features a bright yellow composite flower crown on a bed of large, jagged leaves. These species are very common and widespread, popping up almost everywhere from parks and gardens to roadsides and meadows. The roots, leaves, flowers and buds of the dandelion can be used for food and can be harvested from early spring to late autumn. The roots can be used as a coffee substitute and are famously used in the Dandelion-and-Burdock drink. Leaves can be added to salads and the dandelion flowers are often used in cakes. You can also make beer from the entire plant.
A hairy, perennial herb in the rose family, the Wild Strawberry can be found from May to August. The species is indiscriminate of their growing environment and can be found in a wide range of areas – it is found naturally growing in woodlands, hillsides, meadows, hedgerows and urban green spaces. Wild Strawberries can be identified by serrated, trifoliate (three leaflets) leaves and white, five-petalled flowers with a yellow centre. The berries of a Wild Strawberry appear similar to that of commercial strawberries but are generally smaller and rougher. These edible berries can be foraged from June onwards to make teas, cordials and puddings or can be infused into vinegars and sauces. With a sweet and juicy taste, these fruits can also be used as garnishes or used in salads.
A sure sign that summer has arrived, the Bramble is an iconic British summertime plant. This perennial shrub can be found up to 3m in height, featuring thorny stems which turn red with age and dark, jagged leaves. Come spring, a Bramble bush will have small groups of white or pale pink flowers with five petals. The fruit of this plant will appear up until autumn, with distinctive black, shiny berries. Ripening from green to purple-black, blackberries have a sweet, tart flavour. They are widespread in the UK and can be found in many habitats including woodland, hedges, fields and urban spaces. It is advised to pick blackberries away from busy roadways and paths to avoid pollutants and other contaminants. Picking from the upper half of the bush is also advised to avoid dog mess. The blackberry is a versatile fruit, with diverse culinary uses. It is commonly used to make jams, jellies and preserves but can also be used to make cordials and fruity teas.
Laetiporus sulphureus, named Chicken of the Woods, is a thick bracket fungus common in the UK. This fungus has bright yellow-orange clusters that fade to cream with age. The average cap can grow to around 45cm in width and is often found growing on the side of trees in broadleaf habitat between June and November. It is mainly found on oak trees, but can also be found on Yews, cherries, Sweet Chestnut and willow. It should be noted that if the fungus is found growing on Yews, or other poisonous trees, the fungus can cause sickness in humans. The firm texture of this fungus makes it a favorable alternative to chicken in vegetarian dishes, as the name suggests. It is often substituted in stews, stir fries, and marinated on skewers. When foraging, it is best to eat younger specimens to avoid a hard, leathery texture associated with older fungi.
Giant Puffballs are an astonishing sight when found in the wild. Their distinctive white, spherical silhouette can reach up to 90cm in diameter. This fungus has a soft, spongy texture inside, and a thick, velvety texture on the surface. A stemless variety, this plant is found directly on the ground and is often found in small clusters or ‘fairy rings’. As the fungus ages, it becomes browner in colour, compared to the firm, white flesh of young specimens. Giant Puffballs can be found in meadows, open pasture and woodland from July to September. They are widespread in the UK but are localised in habitat. This fungus is popular with vegetarian dishes – its firm, thick texture makes it a great substitute for chicken. It is often pan fried like steak, roasted or breaded and fried.
A good pair of binoculars is an invaluable part of any field kit and they provide some of the most memorable wildlife encounters. There is an overwhelming array of sizes and specifications and it can be difficult to choose between them when purchasing a new pair. In this post we will provide a summary of some of the key features of a pair of binoculars, to help you find the best pair to accompany you on surveys, whilst travelling or when enjoying your local wildlife.
Once you have decided on your budget, there are a few key metrics that will help you decide which pair of binoculars will suit you best. With binoculars it really is worth paying as much as you can afford as the glass, lens coatings and specifications improve with every step up in price.
Magnification
Binocular models generally have two numbers in their description. The first of these relates to the magnification. (For example, 8 x 42 binoculars will have a magnification of 8x). In general, binoculars have a magnification between 8x and 12x. As you would expect, the higher the magnification, the larger objects will appear when looking through them. As magnification increases, the field of view can be reduced and you will need to ensure that you have steady hands or use some kind of support.
Lens Diameter
Larger diameter lenses provide brighter images at dawn and dusk. Photo credit: Paulo Valdivieso – www.flickr.com
The second number in the binocular model description (e.g. 8 x 42) refers to the diameter of the objective lens. Standard size binoculars tend to have objective lenses of 32mm to 42mm whilst lenses in compact binoculars usually measure 25mm. Larger lenses can dramatically improve low light performance and are particularly good for use at dusk or dawn. The trade-off is that larger lenses are heavier. The most popular size of binoculars for birdwatching was traditionally 8 x 42, but with advances in manufacture and lens performance, 8 x 32 binoculars now offer fantastic specifications in a more compact body.
Glass Type
The type and quality of glass have a huge impact on image quality. Image by Bicanski via Public Domain Images
The type of glass used to manufacture the lenses can vastly affect the quality of the image. Two types of glass to look out for are extra-low dispersion (ED) and fluoride (FL) glass. These reduce chromatic aberrations giving clearer and sharper colours and reduced colour “fringing”.
Fringing is the blurring that can occur between light and dark parts of an image. If your budget allows for an upgrade to ED glass binoculars, you will notice a distinct improvement in clarity compared to binoculars without ED glass. Affordable pairs of ED binoculars include the Hawke Optics Endurance ED and the Opticron Explorer ED.
Lens and Prism Coatings
The primary difference in performance and the brightness of images between different pairs of binoculars is often due to lens and prism coatings. Light is lost as it travels across every surface inside a pair of binoculars and the aim of a good pair of binoculars is to keep light transmission as high as possible between the objective and the ocular lens. Lens and prism coatings reduce the amount of light that is lost helping to produce a brighter and sharper image. Lenses that are multi-coated have multiple layers of lens coatings. High-quality binoculars are fully multi-coated which means that they have multiple layers of coating on all lens surfaces. Roof prism binoculars have a particular problem with “phase shift” where the polarisation angle of the prism causes the light passing through to be split into two slightly out of phase beams. This results in an image that has lower resolution and may look slightly blurred. Prism coatings correct this problem by forcing the split light back into phase. Look out for binoculars with Phase Correction (PC) prism coatings.
Dunlin (Calidris alpina). Photo credit: Ron Knight – www.flickr.com
Key Comparison Metrics
Comparing some of the performance metrics of a pair of binoculars can help when deciding which pair would best suit your purposes. In particular, field of view will be useful if you are looking at large landscapes (e.g. whale or sea watching) and close focus is very important if you are looking at insects.
Field of View – The field of view is how wide an image can be seen at a specified distance (usually 1000m). A wide field of view is useful for large landscapes and for fast-moving animals. Models with a particularly wide field of view include all of the Kite Optics range, the Opticron Discovery, Traveller ED and Explorer ranges, the Bushnell Prime and Forge ranges and the Swarovski EL and SLC binoculars.
The Opticron Discovery range of binoculars has a fantastic field of view and great close focus.
Close Focus – The close focus is the minimum distance at which the binoculars are able to focus. People interested in viewing insects using their binoculars would be advised to choose a model with a small close focus distance. Models with particularly low close focus include the Opticron Discovery and Traveller ranges, the Swarovski EL and the Kite Lynx HD+ binoculars.
Weight – The weight of the binoculars is incredibly important, as it is likely that you will be carrying them around for long periods of time. Higher quality models of comparable specification will tend to be lighter than entry-level models, and those with larger objective lenses will weigh more than those with smaller ones. Binoculars that are particularly lightweight and excellent for travelling include the Opticron Traveller range and the Hawke Optics Nature-Trek and Endurance ranges.
Eye Relief – This is the maximum distance from the eyepiece lens that the eye can be positioned at which the full width of the image is visible without vignetting (darkening of the image around the edges). Longer eye relief is useful for those who wear glasses.
If you have any queries regarding binoculars then our Customer Services team and trained Wildlife Equipment Specialists would be delighted to assist on 01803 865913 or via email at customer.services@nhbs.com.
Recommended Models
Entry Level
Kite Ursus Binoculars
Ease of use and excellent build quality in conjunction with a wide field of view and high image quality make this model ideal for beginner binocular users.
GPO Passion HD Binoculars Multi-layer lens coating offers unbeatable image quality for the price, and a magnesium rubberised chassis creates a robust housing for the German-engineered optics.
Top of the Range
Swarovski NL Pure Binoculars Enhanced optics offer the widest field of view with almost discernible edges all housed within a revolutionary ergonomic housing.
Two available smartphone adapter options allow users to take crisp and stable shots directly down the lens of their binoculars or spotting scope using most smart-phone cameras.
Banner image features Northern Lapwings (Vanellus vanellus). Photo credit: Tony Hisgett – www.flickr.com
Finches, in the family Fringillidae, are small to medium-sized birds, often having colourful plumage and short, triangular beaks, though this can vary depending on food preference.They’re found across the world, excluding Australia and the polar regions, and include more than 200 recorded species. The family Fringillidae is split into two subfamilies:Fringillinae and Carduelinae. In the UK, there are more than 15 finch species with breeding populations, along with several migrants and occasional visitors.
Distribution: Mainly found in southern England, with populations in the north and south of Wales as well as southern Scotland.
Habitat: Woodland, particularly forest canopies.
Size: Length: 18cm, Wingspan: 31cm
BoCC5 status: Red
What to look for: This is the largest finch in the UK, with a large head and thick beak. They are mainly a rusty brown colour, with a darker brown back and wings. Their white undertail, tail tip and wing bars are easy to see in flight. Their head is a warmer orange-brown and they have a grey band around their neck. The black border to the base of their beak stretches down the front of their throat and towards the eye. The prominence of these features can vary between individuals, with females usually paler than males.
Distribution: Widely distributed across Britain and Ireland.
Habitat: Woodlands, orchards and hedgerows.
Size: Length: 14.5–16.5cm, Wingspan: 22–26cm
BoCC5 status: Amber
What to look for: A larger species of finch, the Bullfinch has a thick, black bill and distinct colouring. Males have a vibrant pink-orange breast, with a contrasting white rump, grey back, black cap and tail. Females are duller in colour, with a light reddish-brown breast and back.
Distribution: Widespread throughout England and Wales, largely absent in upland areas such as northern Scotland
Habitat: Urban greenspaces, heathland and commons with seeding plants such as thistles, farmland, wetlands and woodland.
Size: Length: 12cm, Wingspan: 21–25.5cm
BoCC5 status: Green
What to look for: A recognisable and colourful finch, the Goldfinch has a bright red face with white cheeks and a black crown. Its golden-brown back is framed with black wing edges and yellow wing patches. Both males and females look alike.
Distribution: Widespread, largely absent in upland areas such as northern Scotland
Habitat: Urban greenspaces, heathland and commons with seeding plants such as thistles, farmland, wetlands and woodland.
Size: Length: 15cm, Wingspan: 26cm
BoCC5 status: Red
What to look for: Adult Greenfinches are, as their name suggests, green, but their wings and tail are mostly grey with a bar of bright yellow. They have a grey patch on their cheeks and a pink bill and legs. They have two distinct calls: a long wheezing call and a more melodic call consisting of trills and fast whistles.
Habitat: Woodlands, hedgerows, urban greenspaces, farmland and heathland.
Size: Length: 14.5cm, Wingspan: 24.5–28.5cm
BoCC5 status: Green
What to look for: One of the most common garden birds in the UK, the Chaffinch has a loud, distinctive song and colourful plumage. Males are memorable for their chestnut-orange breast and back, contrasted with a blue-grey crown and white shoulder patches. Females are less colourful, featuring a light brown breast and back.
Distribution: Widespread in Britain and Ireland, absent from upland north Scotland.
Habitat: Commons, heathland, farmland, saltmarshes and urban greenspaces.
Size: Length: 13.5cm, Wingspan: 21–25.5cm
BoCC4 status: Red
What to look for: A smaller, slenderer finch, the Linnet is historically known for its melodic song. The male Linnet boasts a crimson forehead and chest, with a grey head and brown back. Females are paler in appearance and showcase the characteristic streaky brown hue of the species, though lacking reddish patches. Linnets may be found in large flocks during winter, often mixing with other seed-eating finches.
Siskin (Carduelis spinus)
Male Siskin by Caroline Legg via FlickrFemale Siskin by Caroline Legg via Flickr.
Distribution: Found across the UK, most abundant in Scotland and Wales.
Habitat: Tree tops in coniferous and mixed woodland, urban greenspaces.
Size: Length: 12cm, Wingspan: 20–23cm
BoCC5 status: Green
What to look for: A streaky green finch with a narrow bill, the Siskin is a resident breeder in the UK. Males have a distinct black crown and chin, with yellow cheeks and breast, and yellow streaks on black wings. Less colourful, females are a dull yellow on the head and back, with a streaky breast and underside. Both have a forked tail. Often found gathered in groups over winter with other finches.
Distribution: An occasional visitor in southern England and the Channel Islands
Habitat: Coniferous woodland, farmland and urban greenspaces
Size: Length:11–12cm, Wingspan: 18–20cm
BoCC5 status: Not assessed, former breeder
What to look for: A small, brown streaky finch with a stubby bill. Males feature a vibrant buttercup-yellow head and breast, with brown patches on the crown and cheeks. Females are less eye-catching, browner in colour with soft yellow hues. Both males and females have a forked tail and yellow streaks on brown wings.
Common Rosefinch (Carpodacus erythrinus)
Common Rosefinch breeding male by Birds of Gilgit-Baltistan via FlickrCommon Rosefinch female by Imran Shah via Flickr
Distribution: A rare visitor, mainly observed in the northern Isles, east coast of Scotland and southern England.
Habitat: Woodland, scrubland and urban greenspaces.
Size: Length: 13.5–15cm
BoCC5 status: Not assessed
What to look for: Common Rosefinch are similar in size to a Chaffinch. Males have a striking scarlet head, breast and rump. The wings are a woody-brown, contrasted with a pale, whitish underside. Juveniles and adult female Common Rosefinch have a lightly streaked olive-brown plumage and a short beak. Juveniles are mostly observed in autumn during migration, and adult males may be seen in spring.
Common Crossbill (Loxia curvirostra) and Parrot Crossbill (Loxia pytyopsittacus)
Common Crossbill:
Common Crossbil (male) by Ashley Wahlberg via FlickrRed Crossbill (female) by Luiz Lapa via Flickr
Parrot Crossbill: Female (left) by Tero Laakso via Flickr, Male (right) by Alan Shearman via Flickr
Parrot Crossbill (female) by Nina Laakso via Flickr
Red Crossbill (male) by Ashley Wahlberg via Flickr
Distribution: Common Crossbill: widespread throughout Britain and Ireland. Parrot Crossbill: rare resident in Caledonian pinewoods of north-eastern Scotland.
BoCC5 status: Common Crossbill: Green, Parrot Crossbill: Amber
What to look for: Common Crossbill:Named for their distinctive crossed beak, the Common Crossbill is a large finch with a forked tail and colourful plumage. Showcasing a vibrant, brick-red head, breast and underside, a male Common Crossbill is easily distinguished from its female counterpart. Instead of the characteristic vibrant plumage, females have an olive-green colour on the head, breast and belly, with a yellow rump and grey wings. Juveniles have a grey-brown streaky appearance. Parrot Crossbill: A slightly larger species, with a deeper, heavier bill, the Parrot Crossbill is difficult to distinguish from their common cousins. Males feature a similar, orange-red head and breast with muted grey wings and tail. Females also have olive-green plumage with the characteristic crossed bill.
Did you know? A close relative, theScottish Crossbill (Loxia scotica), is endemic to the Caledonian pine woods of Scotland. They are the only bird to be found in these forests and nowhere else in the world.
Common Redpoll (Acanthis flammea) and Lesser Redpoll (Acanthis cabaret)
Common Redpoll by Lisa Hupp/USFWS via FlickrLesser Redpoll by Signhmanb via Flickr
Distribution:Common Redpoll: Visitor to the UK in winter during migration, seen in eastern Scotland and England. Lesser Redpoll: Widespread.
Habitat: Birch, Larch or Alder woodland, urban greenspaces, farmland.
BoCC5 status: Common Redpoll: Red, Lesser Redpoll: Not Assessed.
What to look for: Common Redpoll: Paler than their vibrant cousins, Common Redpoll are streaky brown from above, with a pale white plumage from below. Displaying a vibrant red forehead and pink breast in summer, they are remarkably similar to their smaller cousins. Lesser Redpoll: Slightly smaller, Lesser Redpoll are a similar streaky brown with red colouring on the crown and pink-red breast in summer. They have a black bib under a small, yellow bill. Females appear similar to male counterparts, without the pink flush on the breast. Juveniles are streaky brown and do not have a red crown or pink flush.
Distribution: Found in upland England, Wales and coastal Northern Ireland during summer months. East coast of England in winter. Widespread in Scotland.
What to look for:A small, streaky brown finch with a forked tail and a short bill. Twite have a brown back with dark streaking, a pale underside and streaking on the breast. During summer months the bill is grey, where it turns yellow for winter. A rich golden-brown face and upper breastare also present during winter months.Males are distinguished by a pink rump during summer.
Habitat: Beech woodlands, hedgerows, stubble fields, farmland and urban greenspaces.
Size: Length: 14cm, Wingspan: 26cm
BoCC5 status: Green
What to look for: A brightly marked winter visitor, Brambling are of similar size to a Chaffinch. They have a rust-orange hue over the breast and shoulder which is more vibrant and extensive among males. Males have a blue-grey head which transforms to a sleek black during summer breeding. During winter, they sport a flecked black and brown plumage, contrasting a white belly and rump. Wings are dark in colour with orange bars. Females have a softer orange breast than males, and a brown head with two pronounced dark lines running across the head and down the nape. When part of a larger flock, Brambling are recognisable for their white rump and a yellow bill during winter.
As we enter the warmer months, many of us will find ourselves wandering through nature more often, perhaps whilecamping or taking an evening walk through wild areas. We might encounterbirds of prey during these times, and many of us will ask ‘Which one is that?’. Here we look at a selection of the 15 birds of prey in the UK, covering every group of predatory bird aside from vultures.
Conservation Status: On the Green list under the Birds of Conservation Concern 5. Listed as least concern under the IUCN Red List.
Distribution: Widespread and common throughout the UK. Estimated 4,600 breeding pairs.
Identification: Red Kites are large birds with a wingspan of up to 2m. Easily identified by their angled red wings, reddish-brown streaky body and a long, forked tail. These birds have a distinctive white patch underneath their black-tipped wings. Adults have a grey head and a yellow beak with a grey-black hook.
Best places to spot: Red Kites can be seen year-round and are active during the day. They can be found in woodland, open countryside, farmland and increasingly in suburban areas and towns. The Chilterns, central Scotland and southern England are great places to spot Red Kites in the UK, although the species is commonplace and can be found across the country.
Conservation Status: On the Amber list under the Birds of Conservation Concern 5.
Distribution: Widespread throughout the UK except for the Scottish Highlands and offshore islands. Around 31,000 breeding pairs.
Identification: A small bird of prey with a wingspan of around 60cm, the Sparrowhawk is around the size of a blackbird (although females can be as large as a Feral Pigeon) and weighs up to 300g. Males have a bluish-grey back and cap with white and orange barred underparts. Females are browner in colouration and have brown/grey barring on their underside. The species have broad, rounded wings and bright yellow/orange eyes. The chin and cheeks of both males and females are a reddish orange.
Best places to spot: Sparrowhawks can be found year-round in grassland, woodland, heath and moorland, farmland and suburban areas.Good places to spot Sparrowhawks are: Bowers Marsh, Basildon; Blean Woods, Canterbury and Wolves Wood, Ipswich. The Sparrowhawk is also a good species for garden watchers – often feeding on finches, tits and sparrows, you may be fortunate enough to see one in your own garden.
Conservation Status: On the green list under Birds of Conservation Concern 5. Protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981.
Distribution: Nesting occurs in the north and south-west of England, also in Wales and Scotland on coastal cliffs. There are around 1,750 breeding pairs in the UK.
Identification: The Peregrine Falcon has a large wingspan measuring up to 1.2m and a muscular, heavy-set profile. From above, this bird appears a dark slate-grey with pointed wings and a shorter tail. From below, it appears white with thin, dark stripes across the chest and belly. This species also has a white throat and cheek with a black mask and moustache.
Best places to spot: Peregrine Falcons can be found nesting along coastal cliffs and rocky coastlines. They may also be found in urban areas as their range expands and have famously been found at the top of Derby Cathedral. Great places to spot Peregrine Falcons include Ramsey Island, Pembrokeshire; Saltholme Nature Reserve, Cleveland and Rainham Marshes Nature Reserve, Essex.
Conservation Status: On the amber list under Birds of Conservation Concern 5. Protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981.
Distribution: Osprey can be seen from March to September before they migrate to west Africa for the winter. Osprey breed in Scotland, Wales, Cumbria and the east Midlands. Breeding populations are estimated to be between 200–250 pairs.
Identification: Ospreys are large birds with a wingspan of up to 1.7m. The species have brown and white plumage – a dark brown upper contrasting with a white chest, underside and head. The wings are long, barred and appear angled during flight. A ‘necklace’ of slightly darker, mottled colouration may be present, and is more visible in females.
Best places to spot: Osprey have a fish-based diet so are best spotted in freshwater and wetland habitats. Loch Ruthven, Lock Lomond and Loch of Kinnordy are reported to be good locations for Osprey spotting.
Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo)
Common Buzzard. Image by Caroline Legg via Flickr.
Conservation Status: On the green list under Birds of Conservation Concern 5.
Distribution: The UK’s most common bird of prey, the Common Buzzard can be seen year-round almost everywhere in the UK. The population has an estimated 63,000 breeding pairs.
Identification: A large bird with broad, rounded wings, the Common Buzzard has a wingspan of up to 1.2m. In flight, their wings have a distinctive ‘V’ shape with dark coloured wingtips. Their plumage can vary from shades of dark brown to paler hues, and individuals often have a ‘necklace’ of colour beneath the breast. Their underside is white, some more so than others, and their tail feathers have light brown barring. Their beak is sharp and yellow in colour with a dark brown/black hook.
Best places to spot: Buzzards can be found in farmland, grassland, woodlands and urban areas with green spaces. West Sedgemoor Nature Reserve, Taunton; Fairy Glen, Isle of Skye and Labrador Bay, Torquay are reported to be good places to spot these birds.
Conservation Status: On the amber list under Birds of Conservation Concern 5. Populations are declining.
Distribution: This species is widespread and can be found year-round across the UK, although absent from north-west Scotland, central Wales and Shetland. There are an estimated 46,000 breeding pairs.
Identification: Slightly larger than a Feral Pigeon, Kestrels have a wingspan up to 80cm. This species is often seen hovering mid-air, andhas distinctively pointed wings. The head and tail of male Kestrels is grey, with a black band at the bottom of the tail feathers. Their backs are gingery-brown with a black-speckled cream underside. Females have a more uniform colouration, with a lighter brown plumage and dark bands on the wings and tail. The chest and underside have a lighter, almost-cream plumage with brown spots. The species have a short, yellow/grey beak with a sharp hook.
Best places to spot: Kestrels can be found on open grassland and farmland, wetlands and urban areas. This species is often observed by roadside hedges and may be seen perching on fences or lampposts.
Conservation Status: On the green list under Birds of Conservation Concern 5. Protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981.
Distribution: Found dispersed across the UK in localised populations. Strongholds are present in south and east Scotland, northern England and Wales. There are an estimated 620 breeding pairs.
Identification: This species has a wingspan of up to 120cm and is around the size of a Buzzard. Goshawks have broad wings which appear grey on top. Females have a slate-grey upper and males have a blue-grey upper, both with white, barred underparts. The species has long, thick legs and a rounded tail. Goshawks also have a distinctive white line above their eyes.
Best places to spot: This species can be seen year-round in wetlands, farmland and coniferous woodland. Goshawks are commonly seen in late winter and spring during aerial displays over their breeding grounds. Sites of particular interest are Kielder Forest, New Forest and the Forest of Dean.
Conservation Status: On the red list under the Birds of Conservation Concern 5. Protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981.
Distribution: Widespread across the UK. Merlin are seen nesting in north and south-west England, Wales and Scotland. Up to 1,500 breeding pairs are estimated in the UK.
Identification: The UK’s smallest bird of prey, the Merlin is around the size of a Blackbird (Turdus merula). This species is often seen low to the ground or hovering in breezy areas. Males have blue-grey plumage from above with cream-slightly brown underparts with black streaks. Females also have dark streaking underneath but are instead more brown in colour. The species has broad wings with pointed tips (wingspan up to 60cm) and a square, blunt tail. As with other raptors, they have yellow legs and a grey tipped beak.
Best places to spot: This species can be seen year-round in moorland, coastal marshes and farmland where they nest in heather. Orkney, Loch Sunart and Dee Estuary are reported to be excellent places to spot Merlin.
Conservation Status: On the amber list under Birds of Conservation Concern 5.
Distribution: Widespread in the UK, but absent in Northern Ireland and the Isle of Man. An estimated 50,000 breeding pairs in the UK.
Identification: Tawny Owls are the largest common owl in the UK and have a wingspan up to 100cm. They appear a mottled reddish-brown with a paler underside. Their large, round head has a dark ring around its border, and they have characteristically large dark eyes. The species has an olive-yellow hooked beak
Best places to Spot: Tawny Owls can be spotted year-round in broadleaved woodland, farmland and urban green spaces.
Conservation Status: On the green list under Birds of Conservation Concern 5. Protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981.
Distribution: Widespread across the UK but absent from the Scottish Highlands. An estimated 4,000 breeding pairs.
Identification: Barn Owls are best known for their distinctive heart-shaped face and snowy white feathers. Their back and wings are mottled grey and beige, with a pure white underside. They have a white face with large black eyes and a short, curved beak.
Best places to spot: Barn Owls can be seen year-round at dawn and dusk. The species may be seen in farmland, grassland and wetland. Strumpshaw Fen, Norfolk; Middleton Lakes, Staffordshire and Bempton Cliffs, East Riding of Yorkshire are reported to be good places to spot Barn Owls in the UK.
Weevils are beetles belonging to the superfamily Curculionoidea. They are generally characterised by their elongated snout, or rostrum, although this is not present in all species. The similarly named Curculionidae family exist within this superfamily and contain the “true” weevils. These true weevils have long snouts and geniculate or sharply hinged antennae that end in small clubs. There are several other families of weevil including Belidae, the primitive weevils, and Anthribidae, the fungus weevils.
As of 2012, over 600 species of weevil had been recorded in Britain. The total number of species worldwide is unknown, but estimates suggest that there are between 40,000–97,000. They can be found in a variety of habitats including gardens, parks, woodland, farmland, heathland and wetlands. They are usually found on plants but they can also be found on the ground. Some weevil species, such as vine weevils and rice weevils, feed on grains and can become an infestation inside pantries and cupboards. They aren’t harmful to humans or pets but they can cause damage to stored foods as their populations grow rapidly once they are inside containers of flour or cereals.
Identification of weevils can be difficult in the field as many species look alike to the naked eye. A hand lens, specimen pots and a good field guide can help. There are several ways to look for specimens, such as using a sweep net or beating tray or simply searching by eye. However, as weevils are very small, often less than 6mm in length, it is important to be careful when surveying.
In this post we will look at some of the most commonly found weevils in the UK, providing some key identifying features and information on similar or confusion species.
Glossary
– Elytra – Protective wing-cases covering the hindwings (singular, elytron)
– Geniculate antennae – Antennae having elbows
– Pronotum – Section of the body directly behind the head
– Rostrum – Snout-like projection extending from the head
– Scutellum – Large triangular shield or plate located on the back
– Setae – Stiff bristle-like hairs (singular, seta)
– Striae – Longitudinally depressed lines or furrows (singular, stria)
– Tarsi – Foot or contact surface of the leg (singular, tarsus)
– Tibia – Fourth segment of the leg (from the body), located between the femur and the tarsus
Distribution: Widespread throughout Britain. What to look for: Black body mottled with small brown patches. Their elytra, the hardened forewings that serve as protective cases for the hindwings, have longitudinal grooves, or striae. Their pronotum is pebbled in texture. Similar species: There are several dark, grooved species, and the Large Pine Weevil (Hylobius abietis) is visually similar but has orange or creamy-yellow spots resembling bands and their elytra lack defined grooves.
Green Immigrant Leaf Weevil by Tim Worfolk via Flickr (CC BY-ND 2.0)
GREEN IMMIGRANT LEAF WEEVIL (Polydrusus formosus)
Distribution: Widespread, increasing population. What to look for: A metallic green species with round scales and pale antennae that end in a dark club. Their elytra are longitudinally striated and do not have any setae (stiff structures that resemble bristles). Older specimens may be darker in colour as their scales can wear off, showing their black under-colour. Their legs have some metallic green covering but with an orangey under-colour. Similar species: There are several visually similar species, therefore specimens need to be examined closely. Identification in the field may be difficult.
Pea Leaf Weevil by Danny Chapman via Flickr (CC BY 2.0)
PEA LEAF WEEVIL (Sitona lineatus)
Distribution: Widespread in England and Wales. What to look for: This is a buff species with dark longitudinal stripes that can appear dark brown or reddish. Its rostrum, or snout, is very short, unlike those of many weevil species. Similar species: There are several similar Sitona species. Identification in the field may not be possible and dissection is often needed to confirm species.
Acorn Weevil by Lukas Large via Flickr (CC BY-SA 2.0)
ACORN WEEVIL (Curculio glandium)
Distribution: Widespread, more common in the south of Britain. What to look for: The Acorn Weevil is a brownish-rust colour with darker markings on its elytra. It has a long, striking rostrum and a paler scutellum. Similar species: Very similar to Curculio nucum but can be distinguished by the shape of the antennal club which is more elongated and narrow than that of C. nucum.
Nettle Weevil by Danny Chapman via Flickr (CC BY 2.0)
NETTLE WEEVIL (Phyliobius pomaceus)
Distribution: Common in England and Wales, rare in Scotland. What to look for: A black beetle covered in metallic, bluish-green scales, which are oval. There is a prominent tooth on the front femur. Similar species: There are multiple similar species in the Phyllobius genus. The Nettle Weevil is the only one with oval scales.
Cabbage Seed Weevil by Gilles San Martin via Flickr (CC BY-SA 2.0)
CABBAGE SEED WEEVIL (Ceutorhynchus obstrictus)
Distribution: Fairly widespread in England and Wales. What to look for: The Cabbage Seed Weevil has a round grey body with grey legs. They are covered in small, white scales. They have a long, curved rostrum and small, bent antennae. If disturbed, this weevil will fold its rostrum and legs against its body, resembling a small pebble. Similar species: Several other Ceutorhynchus species are very similar to C. obstrictus but they can be distinguished from some by the colour of their tarsi, the last part of the insect leg, which are black to dark-brown rather than reddish-yellow. C. Obstrictus also lacks a tooth on the hind femora. Synonym:Ceutorhynchus assimilis, Cabbage Seedpod Weevil.
Willow Gall Weavil by Line Sabroe via Flickr (CC BY 2.0)
WILLOW GALL WEAVIL (Archarius salicivorus)
Distribution: Widespread in Britain. What to look for: A short, black weevil with a tapered body and long snout. Its antennae are midway along the rostrum. It has a paler underside and a small pale scutellum, the small section of the exoskeleton in the middle of the back between the pronotum and the abdomen Similar species: The Strawberry Blossom Weevil (Anthonomus rubi) is visually similar but has a less rounded appearance when viewed from above and a less barrel-shaped pronotum than the Willow Gall Weevil.
Large Pine Weavil by gbohne via Flickr (CC BY-SA 2.0)
LARGE PINE WEAVIL (Hyblobius albietis)
Distribution: Widespread. What to look for: This is a large dark brown weevil with orange to creamy-yellow patches on its elytra, which form bands. They have black or deep red legs with a distinct tooth on the femora and at the end of the tibiae. They also have eyebrow-like patches on their head at the base of their rostrum. Similar species: The Vine Weevil (O. Sulcatus, see above) is also dark with lighter patches, but these are brown and their elytra have more distinct striations. They also have a more distinctly ‘pebbled’ pronotum.
Caterpillars are part of the life cycle of moths or butterflies which is known as complete metamorphosis. This life cycle includes four stages: egg, caterpillar (also known as the larval or feeding stage), pupa (the transition stage) and adult (the reproductive phase). With over 2,600 species of moth and 60 species of butterfly in the British Isles, there are a large variety of caterpillars present in our countryside.
There are several stages of caterpillar growth called instars, during which the caterpillar sheds its skin as it grows. Colouration, size and patternation can vary between these instars. Additionally, species can have different variations of caterpillars, including different colour forms. Several species are listed below, grouped by key characteristics such as colour, patternation and features.
Hairy caterpillars
There are many ecological functions of hair-like structures on caterpillars including defence and camouflage. These hairs, called setea, can be almost invisible to the naked eye, while others make them easier to see. Two types of caterpillar hair can cause harm to humans and pets: urticating, which are itchy, non-venomous hairs that can irritate the skin, and stinging hairs, which are hollow spines that have poison-secreting cells that can cause a range of health issues if they enter the skin.
Knot Grass moth (Acronicta rumicis): Colour can vary between light gingery brown to near black, with patches of rusty brown hair and a broken line of white dorsal patches. They also have a wavy white line on their sides, broken with bright orange/red spots. They grow up to 40mm in length. Can be confused with the caterpillars of Brown-tail and Yellow-tail moths. Foodplants include Knot Grass as well as Broad-leaved Dock, plantains, Bramble, Hawthorn, Common Sorrel, heather, and Purple Loosestrife.
Fox Moth (Macrothylacia rubi): Very hairy, up to 70mm long, dark brown with an orangey stripe down the length of its body. Caterpillars in earlier stages of development may have distinctive orange or yellow bands. Commonly feeds on heathers, Bilberry, Creeping Willow, Bramble, Meadowsweet and Salad Burnet.
Garden Tiger moth (Arctia caja): Also known as the woolly bear caterpillar due its very long hairs. Grows up to 55mm long and has a dark red dorsal area with white tipped hairs,an orangey red underside, and small white markings along its sides. Feeds on a variety of herbacious and garden plants including Common Nettle, Broad-leaved Dock, burdocks and Hound’s-tongue.
Brown-tail moth (Euproctis chrysorrhoea): Can measure up to 30mm long, black with white markings down its sides and two distinctive orangey red ‘warts’ on its back near its tail. Be aware that its hairs are toxic to humans. Feeds on plants in the Rosaceae family including Hawthorn, Blackthorn, Plum, Cherry, Rose and Bramble.
Miller moth (Acronicta leporina): Up to 35mm long with very long white or yellow hairs that swirl to one side. The body is often a pale green to brown depending on the development stage but this can be hard to see under the hairs. Usually found on birch or Alder trees.
Pale Tussock moth (Calliteara pudibunda): Greenish yellow hairs with a black body showing through in bands between tufts. The hairs can vary in colour and can be white, brown or pink. They also have a tail tuft that varies in colour but is usually brown, pink or red. This can be absent in some individuals. The four, tussocky tufts on their dorsal are frequently white, brown or yellow. Feeds on a variety of broadleaved trees and shrubs including Hawthorn, Blackthorn, Crab Apple, oaks, birches and Hazel.
Sycamore moth (Acronicta aceris): Up to 40mm long with thick hair that is either yellow, brown or orange . They have bold white spots down their back, outlined in black, as well as tufts of dark orange or bright red hair on their back. Foodplants are most commonly Sycamore, Field Maple and Horse-chestnut.
White Ermine moth (Spilosoma lubricipeda): Approximately 40mm long with a red, orange or pale dorsal line. Caterpillars at later development stages are covered in spines that can be reddish brown, dark brown or even black.
Elephant Hawk-moth (Deilephila elpenor): Thick bodies that grow up to 8cm in length, usually dark brown but bright green forms also occur. The name derives from their smaller, trunk-like head that extends from its more bulbous neck. They feature a spiked tail and four eyespots, although the second pair can be less visible on darker individuals. Most frequently found on Rosebay Willowherb, Great Willowherb, other willowherbs and bedstraws.
Square-spot Rustic moth (Xestia xanthographa): Greenish ochre in colour, with pale lines on its back and edged with dark, long, slanted markings on its sides in a row. Mainly feeds on grasses, plantains and Cleavers.
Large Yellow Underwing moth (Noctua pronuba): Grows to a length of 45–50mm. Its body can be various shades of brown and green, with three lines down its back and dark patches on the inner side of the outer two lines – similar to the Square-spot Rustic. They also have darker sides with a lighter stripe above the legs. Feeds on a wide range of herbaceous plants and grasses including docks, brassicas, marigolds and Foxglove.
Dot Moth (Melanchra persicariae): These caterpillars can reach up to 45mm in length and can be different shades of brown and green. They have three pale, distinctive lines on the dark prothoracic plate behind their head, as well as dark and light chevrons along a pale dorsal line down their backs. Feeds on a wide range of herbaceous and woody plants including Common Nettle, White Clover, Ivy, Hazel, Elder and willows.
Many of these caterpillars can also have a green form.
Large White butterfly (Pieris brassicae): Pale green-yellow in colour with black spots along its body. Visibly hairy. Also known as a Cabbage White due to its preference for cabbages as a food plant.
Buff-tip moth (Phalera bucephala): Distinctive caterpillar with a trellised black and yellow patterning and covering of pale hairs. The face is black and has an inverted yellow V. When fully grown this caterpillar measures up to 75mm in length. Most frequently found on sallows, birches, oaks and Hazel.
Six-spot Burnet moth (Zygaena filipendulae): Caterpillars feature a series of yellow and black dots on a green or greenish-yellow body. Feeds on Common Bird’s-foot-trefoil or occasionally Greater Bird’s-foot-trefoil.
Small Tortoiseshell butterfly (Aglais urticae): Caterpillars are initially black but show increasing variation in colour, with many developing pale yellow lines down their back and sides (some, however, may remain pure black). They have small clusters of short yellow spines and are fully grown at 30mm. Usually found on Common Nettle leaves.
Mullein moth (Curcullia verbasci): One of the most striking and distinctive caterpillars to be found in Britain, they have a mixture of repeating black and yellow markings on a pale bluish-grey body. When fully grown they measure almost 50mm in length. Foodplants include mulleins, Common Figwort, Water Figwort and buddleias.
Box Tree moth (Cydalima perspectalis): Box Tree moths were introduced accidentally from south-east Asia and are a pest of Box trees. Caterpillars have green and black stripes running the length of the body, and the head is shiny black. Each of the body segments has white hairs and eyelike markings.
Peacock butterfly (Aglais io): Unlike the brightly coloured adult Peacock butterfly, the Peacock caterpillar has a velvety black body with small white spots and short spines on each segment. Most commonly feeds on Common Nettle and Hops.
Painted Lady butterfly (Vanessa cardui): Often found on thistles, Painted Lady caterpillars live for 5-10 days in a loosely woven silk nest inside which they feed continuously. They have dark bodies with pale narrow yellow-cream stripes. Particularly on younger larvae, spines can be alternating light and dark.
Marsh Fritillary butterfly (Euphydryas aurinia): Caterpillars are black and hairy and initially live in groups on a larval web which is woven on the bottom-most leaves of Devil’s Bit Scabious plants. Prior to pupation, at the end of April, caterpillars will finally disperse to live independently.
Red Admiral butterfly (Vanessa atalanta): Caterpillars are black and spiny with a yellow stripe down each side and fine hairs along the body. They can be tricky to spot as they use silk to bind nettle leaves together to make a protective tent inside which they feed.
Lime Hawk-moth (Mimas tiliae): Caterpillars are distinctive having a large green body with pale yellow streaks on each segment and a bluish ‘horn’ at the tail end. Turns purple a short time before pupation. Foodplants include Limes, elms, Downy Birch, Silver Birch and Elder.
Poplar Hawk-moth (Laothoe populi): A thick and chunky, bright green caterpillar with faint yellow lines running diagonally along the body. The tail end has a yellow ‘horn’ and some individuals have small, dark spots. Food plants include poplars, sallows and willows.
Privet Hawk-moth (Sphinx ligustri): Bright, lime-green caterpillar with white and purple stripes and a pale yellow spot on each segment. The tail end has a black curved hook. Usually found on Wild and Garden Privets, Ash, Lilac and Guelder-rose.
Eyed Hawk-moth (Smerinthus ocellata): Closely resembles the Poplar Hawk-moth caterpillar in that it is bright green with diagonal yellow lines. When mature it can be distinguished by its bluish tail horn. Foodplants include Apple, willows and sallows.
Speckled Wood butterfly (Pararge aegeria): Bright green with faint dark green and yellow stripes running longitudinally along the length of the body. Feeds on False Brome, Cock’s-foot, Yorkshire-fog and Common Couch.
Pine Hawk-moth (Sphinx pinastri): Dark green caterpillar with a brown stripe along the centre of its back and cream dashes that run either side of this. It has a brown head and a black tail horn. Feeds mainly on Scots Pine.
Bright-line Brown-eye moth (Lacanobia oleracea): Green caterpillar with a bright yellow line along its sides and tiny black spots. Found on a variety of herbacious and woody plants such as Common Nettle, Fat-hen, willowherbs, Hazel and Hop. Sometimes a pest of cultivated Tomatoes.
Hummingbird Hawk-moth (Macroglossum stellatarum): Caterpillars are mainly green and have a thick, cream-yellow stripe running along the sides with a white line above. The tail horn is black with a yellow tip when mature. Feeds on Lady’s Bedstraw, Hedge Bedstraw and Wild Madder.
Straw Dot moth (Rivula sericealis): Green caterpillar with two cream stripes running along the back creating a repeating hourglass pattern between them. Covered in long fine hairs. Not often seen, the caterpillars feed on a variety of grass species.
Silver Y moth (Autographa gamma): Relatively easy to identify as it has only two sets of prolegs (small fleshy stubs beneath the body) and a rear clasper which means it walks with an arched body. It has a green body with a series of white wavy lines which may be broken by pale circles in later instars. Feeds on a range of low-lying herbacious plants including bedstraws, clovers, Common Nettle, Garden Pea and Cabbage.
Kentish Glory moth (Endromis versicolora): Large green caterpillar with diagonal pale stripes on each segment. Usually found on Silver Birch and less often on Downy Birch and Alder.
Emperor Moth (Saturnia pavonia): Green with black hoops containing yellow wartlike spots. Common in scrubby places whether they often feed on heathers, Meadowsweet, Bramble, Hawthorn and Blackthorn, amongst others.
Angle Shades moth (Phlogophora meticulosa): Usually green but can be mixed with shades of brown and/or yellow. A fine pale line runs down the back and a pale band runs down the sides of the body. Foodplants include a range of herbaceous and woody plants such as Common Nettle, Hop, Red Valerian, Bramble and Broad-leaved Dock.
Swallowtail butterfly (Papilio machaon): Striking bright green caterpillar with black bands and orange spots. British Swallowtail caterpillars feed solely on Milk-parsley.
Cinnabar moth (Tyria jacobaeae): Easy to identify having bold gold and black stripes. Most commonly feeds on the leaves and flowers of Common Ragwort where they can be found in their hundreds.
High Brown Fritillary butterfly (Argynnis adippe): Black caterpillar with a checkered pale pattern and yellow/buff spines. Covered in fine black bristles. Feeds on Common Dog-violet and Hairy Violet.
Magpie moth (Abraxas grossulariata): Distinctive caterpillar with a creamy-white body, rows of black and white spots and an orange stripe that runs along the length of the body on the lower sides. Feeds on a range of deciduous trees such as Blackthorn, Hawthorn and Hazel as well as currant and gooseberry bushes.
Small Copper butterfly (Lycaena phlaeas): Slug-shaped caterpillar covered in tiny white hairs. Exists in two forms: a purely green form and a green and pink striped form. Main foodplants are Common Sorrel and Sheep’s Sorrel.
Comma butterfly (Polygonia c-album): Mainly coloured brown and black with a large white mark towards the rear end of its back. Preferred foodplant is Common Nettle.
Yellow-tail moth (Euproctis similis): Black caterpillar with a small hump behind its head. Two red/orange lines run along the back with a row of white markings wither side of them. They are covered in long black hairs and shorter white ones. Feeds on a wide selection of broadleaf trees and shrubs including Hawthorn, Blackthorn, oaks, roses, Hazel and willows.
Lackey moth (Malacosoma neustria): Large orange, blue and white striped caterpillars that are covered with fine orange hairs. Often feed in large groups on broadleaved trees and shrubs including Blackthorn, Hawthorn, cherries, Plum and Apple.
The UK is home to seven native species of amphibian. Over the winter, these frogs, toads and newts have all been hibernating, but it will soon be time for them to venture out to their breeding ponds and pools. If you’re lucky, you will be able to spot them when you’re out and about.
In this blogpost we will provide you with some of the key characteristics of each species which will help you to identify exactly what you’re looking at. For those of you who are keen to find out more, we have also provided a list of field and identification guides at the bottom of the page.
Newts
Newts are members of the salamander family and have a lizard-like body shape. They are semi-aquatic, spending part of the year on land, returning to the water in spring to breed. Eggs are laid in the water where they hatch into tadpoles and then proceed to develop front and back legs, along with gills for breathing. They leave the water in late summer once their gills have been lost.
The three species of newt which are native to the UK are the Smooth Newt (Lissotriton vulgaris), the Palmate Newt (Lissotriton helveticus) and the Great Crested Newt (Triturus cristatus).
Smooth Newt:
Look for the pale spotted throat. Image by gailhampshire.
• Size: Grows to around 10-11cm in length. • Colour: Males brown/olive; females light brown. Belly is usually yellowy orange with black spots. The throat is pale with darker spots. • Skin Texture: Smooth • Habitat: Spring to early summer in ponds and pools (frequently found in garden ponds). Late summer under logs and stones near to water. • Other notes: The male has a wavy back crest during the breeding season.
Palmate Newt:
Look for the pale throat without spots and a dark stripe through the eye – this can help you to distinguish it from the smooth newt. Image by Laurent Lebois.
• Size: Grows to around 7-11cm; slightly smaller than the smooth newt. • Colour: Males olive brown; females yellowish brown. The throat is white/pale pink and does not have spots or speckling. The eye has a dark stripe running horizontally through it. • Skin Texture: Smooth • Habitat: During the breeding season (early March to late May) in shallow ponds, often in heathland bogs. During summer in woodland, ditches and gardens near to water. • Other notes: During the breeding season, the male palmate newt has a ridge running along its back and a tail which ends in a filament. Its back feet are also webbed.
Great Crested Newt
Much larger than the smooth or palmate newt, the male has a large crest which is broken where the tail meets the body. Image by Chris H.
• Size: Up to 15cm in length. Females may be even larger than this. • Colour: Dark brown or black with white/silver dots on sides. Underside is orange with black spots. Pale throat. • Skin Texture: Warty • Habitat: March to May in deep ponds with vegetation. Great crested newts often range further than smooth or palmate newts during the summer and can be found in gardens, ditches and woodland. • Other notes: The male has a very distinctive crest during the breeding season which is broken at the point where the tail meets the body. The crest also has a silver stripe.
Frogs
Frogs are short-bodied, tailless amphibians that largely lay their eggs in water. These eggs hatch into aquatic larvae, known as tadpoles, before metamorphosing into froglets and then adults.
There are two native species of frog in the UK: the Common Frog (Rana temporaria) and the Pool Frog (Pelophylax lessonae).
Common Frog
Keep an eye out for dark patches behind the eyes and dark barring on the back legs. Image by Erik Paterson.
• Size: Adults grow to 6-9cm in length. • Colour: Olive green to yellow-brown. Usually spotty or stripy with dark patches behind the eyes and darker barring on hind legs. • Skin Texture: Smooth and moist. • Habitat: From late February to early October in all sorts of ponds and pools. Common in gardens. • Other notes: Moves by hopping. Common frogspawn is gelatinous with black embryos and tadpoles are initially black but turn speckled brown. (This is a useful way of distinguishing them from toad tadpoles, which remain dark until development).
Pool Frog
• Size: Adults grow to 6-9cm in length. • Colour: Usually brown with dark spots. Light yellow back stripe. • Skin Texture: Smooth and moist. • Habitat: Currently only present in localised spots in East Anglia. • Other notes: Males have prominent vocal sacks on the side of the mouth.
Toads
Toads are characterised by dry-looking, warty skin and short legs. They usually move via a lumbering walk, as opposed to the hopping motion used by frogs. As with frogs, most toads lay their eggs in water. These hatch into tadpoles before growing legs and metamorphosing into the adult form.
Within the UK there are two native species of toad: the Common Toad (Bufo bufo) and the Natterjack Toad (Epidalea calamita).
Common Toad
The common toad moves with a lumbering walk and has distinctive bulges on the back of its head. Image by stanze.
• Size: Females grow up to 13cm whilst males are smaller and usually reach only 8cm. • Colour: Brown to grey-green. Paler on the underside. • Skin Texture: Dry-looking and warty. • Habitat: From late February in damp, shady spots near to breeding ponds. During the summer in woodlands, gardens and fields. • Other notes: The common toad has amber eyes with a horizontal pupil. Moves with a lumbering walk or small hop. Eggs are laid in strings in a double row. Upon hatching the tadpoles are dark and, unlike frog tadpoles, remain so until they develop.
Natterjack Toad
The natterjack toad has a yellow stripe down the spine. Image by Bernard Dupont.
• Size: Females grow up to 8cm whilst males are slightly smaller. • Colour: Pale brown/green, often with brightly coloured red or yellow warts. Yellow stripe down the spine. • Skin Texture: Dry-looking and warty. • Habitat: Coastal dunes and lowland heath, often in open, unshaded habitats. The natterjack toad is very rare in the UK. • Other notes: The natterjack toad has amber eyes with a horizontal pupil. Moves with a running motion, rather than hopping. Lays strings of eggs in a single row.
Further reading:
Amphibians and Reptiles
A comprehensive guide to the native and non-native species of amphibian and reptile found in the British Isles. Professor Trevor Beebee covers the biology, ecology, conservation and identification of the British herpetofauna, and provides keys for the identification of adult and immature specimens as well as eggs, larvae and metamorphs.
Britain’s Reptiles and Amphibians
This detailed guide to the reptiles and amphibians of Britain, Ireland and the Channel Islands has been produced with the aim of inspiring an increased level of interest in these exciting and fascinating animals. It is designed to help anyone who finds a lizard, snake, turtle, tortoise, terrapin, frog, toad or newt to identify it with confidence.
A Guide to the Reptiles and Amphibians of Britain and Ireland
This laminated pamphlet is produced by the Field Studies Council and covers the 13 species of non-marine reptile and amphibian which breed in Britain, as well as the five species which breed in Ireland. These include frogs, toads, newts, snakes and lizards.
Field Guide to the Amphibians and Reptiles of Britain and Europe
This excellent field guide covers a total of 219 species, with a focus on identification and geographical variation. The species text also covers distribution, habitat and behaviour. Superb colour illustrations by talented artist Ilian Velikov depict every species.
The Amphibians and Reptiles of Scotland
This book is designed to be an interesting and informative guide to the amphibians and reptiles that are found in the wild in Scotland. The authors have focused on those species native to Scotland, plus those which are non-native but are breeding in the wild.
The Lives of Fungi
Collins Fungi Guide
Mushrooms and Toadstools of Britain and Europe, Volume 1
Opticron Hand Lens 23mm 10x Magnification
Dissection Kit
Mycology Field Beginners Kit
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