Mycology – Hoopoe – A blog by nhbs

A Beginners Guide to Fungal Spore Printing

Whether you are a budding mycologist or a creative naturalist, spore printing can be a fantastic way to learn more about the intricate biology of fungi, and offers a unique glimpse into their inner structure. It is quick, simple and requires few resources to get started, allowing you to uniquely capture fantastic detail in just a few hours.

In this beginner’s guide, we delve into why we make spore prints and share how to capture the perfect print for identification or decoration.

What are spores?

Spores are the primary reproductive unit of fungi, consisting of haploid cells that contain the genetic material required to reproduce. They are generally released from the gills or pores located underneath the cap of the mushroom, where they are then distributed through the environment via air currents or animal movement. Once the spores have landed on a substrate with a suitable growing environment, they form hyphal threads, gradually building a mycelial network. When environmental conditions are ideal, the mycelium will develop to produce the widely-recognised, and widely loved mushroom fruiting body.

Why make a spore print?

Spore prints are used for a range of reasons and are an essential skill for budding mycologists.

For those interested in mycology, or even foraging for food, spore prints can help with fungal identification by analysing the shape, size, colour, pattern and density of spores (although exercise caution with foraged goods as spore printing alone is not a reliable form of identification). It is also possible to observe spore characteristics microscopically to aid in identification, which can be done by obtaining a print on a microscope slide.

For collectors and enthusiasts, it is possible to grow your own mushrooms using the spores collected with this technique, and many others choose to simply admire their intricate biology with this informative process.

Death Cap mushroom spore prints. — Spore print by Tom Hart, via flickr.

How to make a spore print

You will need:

White or black paper, foil or glass
A small, sharp knife or scalpel blade
A glass or bowl, depending on the size of the specimen
Artists lacquer spray (hair spray will also work)

Method:

Find a suitable mushroom and ensure that the fruit is mature. This technique works with gilled and pored mushrooms, bracket fungi and oyster-shaped mushrooms.
With a sharp knife, carefully remove the stipe as close to the cap as possible, without disturbing the gills around the stem.
Place the cap gills-down onto a piece of paper. For darker coloured spores, use white paper for a clearer print, and vice versa for white spores. If you wish to grow mushrooms from gathered spores, foil is often chosen for its sterility and glass is preferred for those wishing to observe spores under a microscope.
Cover the cap with a glass or bowl, depending on the size and let it sit for up to 12 hours. Covering the mushroom creates an air trap, allowing the spores to fall directly onto the material used for the print.
After 12 hours, remove the cover and allow to fully dry for a day or two. If you are planning to display your print, lightly (!) spritz with artists’ lacquer spray or hairspray to secure the spores.

To safely store spore prints, fold over and secure in a sealed bag at room temperature, or frozen if you plan to cultivate in the future.

Recommended Reading:

The Lives of Fungi

Filled with stunning photographs, this book invites the mycologically curious for an insider look into the hidden world of our planet’s diverse decomposers.

Collins Fungi Guide

A richly illustrated guide to the fungi of Britain and Ireland, this book ensures clear, detailed descriptions for accurate identification.

Mushrooms and Toadstools of Britain and Europe, Volume 1

This third edition illustrates over 650 species in stunning watercolour and features drawings of spores and other useful microscopic features to aid identification.

Opticron Hand Lens 23mm 10x Magnification

An essential part of any naturalist’s field kit, a hand lens will allow you to observe the finer details.

Dissection Kit

Equipped with a range of tools, this dissection kit is suited to mycologists, botanists and entomologists alike, and features a scalpel and forceps for sample manipulation.

Mycology Field Beginners Kit

This comprehensive kit equips you with all the essentials to observe and document fungi in any weather, including a 10x magnification hand lens, weatherproof notebook and four waterproof identification guides to gilled fungi, non-gilled fungi, grassland fungi and common fungi.

The NHBS Guide to UK Grassland Fungi

In the past 75 years, over 90% of western Europe’s grasslands have disappeared. These overlooked and undervalued habitats deliver essential ecosystem services that contribute to the function of the planet – they provide key wildlife habitat, can store large amounts of carbon, and are instrumental in mitigating soil erosion and flood management, which is essential as our landscapes adapt to climate change.

Grassland fungi – such as those outlined in this identification guide – form a distinctive community in these habitats and are key indicators of ancient meadow and unimproved grassland. These species fruit from late summer until winter, and vary greatly in size, shape, colour and texture, from the pale, spherical Earthball to vibrant, slender coral fungi.

In this guide, explore a selection of grassland fungi groups, as well as individual species, that are commonly found across Britain, and read about their identifying features, size and distribution.

Groups

Waxcaps (Hygrocybe)

Identification: There are about 150 different species of Hygrocybe (meaning ‘watery head’) in the UK, and these are a very easily identifiable group. They are characterised by their vibrant, smooth waxy caps that come in a range of bright colours, including red, pink, yellow, orange and brown. When present on the fruiting body, gills are thick but evenly coloured and spaced.

Distribution: Found in nutrient-poor grasslands, such as grazed upland, and often grow alongside other groups including Pinkgills, Corals, Clubs and Earthtongues throughout late summer and autumn.

Size: 5-7cm

Club and Corals (Clavariaceae)

Yellow club fungus. — Yellow club fungus by Jo Graeser.

Identification: These distinctive fungi are easily recognisable by their slender, forking branches that are often rooted in buried wood. They have thick, dense finger or club shaped stalks that grow from a central base, often in clusters, and can be bright yellow, pale pink or white. Coral fungi produce yellow spores from the tip of their branches.

Distribution: Coral fungi predominantly grow on wood, but can also be found in soil, leaf litter or in short grasses and moss from July to November.

Size: 4-10cm

Wood Pinkgill (Entoloma rhodopolium)

Brown caps of wood pinkgill mushrooms (Entoloma rhodopolium) in Huntsville State Park. Texas. — Brown caps of wood pinkgill mushrooms (Entoloma rhodopolium) via Texas Mushrooms.

Identification: Often found in large groups, this very common pinkgill mushroom is defined by its convex, rounded fruiting body that flattens at the bottom of the skirt. Juvenile mushrooms have tightly packed white gills, and turn a light shade of pink with maturity. They feature a long, smooth, lightly coloured stem measuring 4-9cm long.

Distribution: Most commonly found throughout the summer until late autumn in deciduous broadleaf woodlands.

Size: 3-5cm

Note: Poisonous

Species

Earthtongue fungi (Geoglossum fallax)

Earthtongues - Glutinoglossum by Lukas Large, via flickr. — Earthtongues – Glutinoglossum by Lukas Large, via flickr.

Identification: A widespread species found across Britain and Ireland, Earthtongues are characterised by black or dark brown stromata with a single, club-like fruiting body growing from a cylindrical, scaly stem. The head is grooved and makes up a third of the body, and it is covered in fine hairs to protect its fertile spores.

Distribution: Grows in mossy, unimproved and acidic grassland such as old churchyards from August to November.

Size: 2-7cm

Common Inkcap (Coprinopsis atramentaria)

Inkcap Trio by Derek Winterburn, via flickr.

Identification: Starting off as a smooth, egg-shaped ball with scaled central area, the grey or greyish-brown cap later expands into a soft bell shape with a slight curve at its margin. The stem of an inkcap is smooth and reddish-brown in colour, with hundreds of crowded gills that are white at first, but later darken to brown and black before being auto-digested by the fruiting head.

Distribution: Fruits in small clumps on tree stumps, buried hardwood, woodland footpaths and parkland from May until November. Some solitary specimens have been sighted on occasion.

Size: 3-7cm

Note: Poisonous

Petticoat Mottlegill (Panaeolus papilionaceus)

Identification: Petticoat Mottlegills are recognisable by their smooth bell caps with a serrated edge, and can be pale brown, greyish-brown or pallid grey, with a darker centre. The fused-together gills are a pale, greyish brown with white edges that turn dark brown and black with maturity, and the thin, cylindrical stem is covered in a fine white powder.

Distribution: Commonly located in groups on rotted dung from June to November.

Size: 6-12cm

Common Earthball (Scleroderma citrinum)

Identification: Ranging from light ochre to mid-brown or green, with a yellow tinge on its upper surface, the Earthballs rounded, fruiting body is attached to the ground with white mycelial threads and is stemless. It has tough, thick skin covered in coarse scales that vary in size and shape, which rupture as the head matures to allow the wind and rain to disperse its spores – which are white when young, and darken to brown or purple with age. These empty shells often remain in sheltered woodland hollows for many months before decaying.

Distribution: Acidic, well-drained soil near forest paths or on shady banks from July to early December.

Size: 4-10cm

Common Parasol (Macrolepiota procera)

Parasol Fungi by Bernard Spragg, via flickr.

Identification: This edible species of mushroom is round in shape with a pale brown, spherical cap that darkens as it nears the crown. The cap breaks into a scaly texture that features a darker brown, central bump called an umbo. The broad, crowded gills of Common Parasol mushrooms are white or pale cream, and the cap has a white flesh when cut into. The tough, fibrous stem is surrounded by a smooth, white double-edged ring decorated with small brown scales that are comparable to snakeskin.

Distribution: Commonly found on verges, neglected grassland or cliffs, with multiple mushrooms growing in a slightly wavy line, from July to November.

Size: 10-25cm

The NHBS Guide to UK Bracket Fungi

Bracket fungi (basidiomycetes), also known as shelf or polypore fungi, can grow on both dead or living trees and cause widespread heartwood decay deep inside its host. These fungal bodies appear year-round depending on the species and produce bracket-shaped fruit on the trunk, roots or branches of the host tree that can span up to 70cm in diameter.

There are over 1,000 species of bracket fungi worldwide, and here you can explore a selection of bracket fungi found in Britain, detailing their identifying features, when and where they can be found.

Chicken of the Woods (Laetiporus sulphureus) – also known as Sulphur polypore’

Identification: This easy to spot, sulphur-yellow fungus can grow up to 40cm in diameter and features numerous thick, soft, overlapping brackets. When young, they have a velvety texture and orange bands across yellow flesh, which fades to light cream with age. Each bracket is fan-shaped with an undulating margin, while the underside has small pores and produces a yellow liquid when squeezed.

Distribution: June to November. Mainly grows on oak tree trunks, but can also be found on Yew, cherry, chestnut and willows.

Size: 10-40cm

Hen-of-the-Woods (Grifola frondosa)

Identification: This large, very distinctive fungus features many flat, interlocking lobes growing from a dense centre attached to the foot of a tree. The underside of the fronds are cream in colour, their top side can vary from brown to grey, and the flesh is pale cream. It’s very common for multiple growths to emerge from one host, and fully grown hen-of-the-woods can weigh several kilograms.

Distribution: August to November. Predominantly around the base of mature oak trees but they do occasionally grow on other deciduous species.

Size: Up to 70cm

Turkeytail (Trametes versicolor)

Turkeytail Fungi (Trametes versicolor) by Jo Graeser.

Identification: Turkeytail fungi produce thin but tough semi-circular caps in tight, overlapping tiers that have a slightly hairy, velvety texture. It has a range of concentrated coloured rings that are a mix of black, brown, grey, yellow, purple and green, however the outer ring along the edge of the bell is pale in colour. Often confused with Stereum ostrea (or False Turkeytail) this species can be correctly identified by its white underside featuring hundreds of visible pores.

Distribution: Can be found on fallen hardwood trees such as Beech or oak throughout the year, but is most abundant from late spring to autumn.

Size: 4-10cm

Beefsteak (Fistulina hepatica)

Beefsteak fungus (WGP). — Image by David Short via flickr.

Identification: This bracket fungus can be pink, red or brown in colour, with a light underside full of pores that turn red with age. Featuring a slightly inflated edge that flattens as it matures, Beefsteak fungus is moist to the touch and produces smooth, round, pale pink spores.

Distribution: August to November. Usually found in broadleaved woodlands on oak trees.

Size: 6-25cm

Birch Polypore (Piptoporus betulinus) – Also known as the Razorstrop fungus

Identification: Birch Polypore is a common bracket fungus that grows exclusively on birch trees. It has a rounded, brown-white cap with a rubber or leather-like texture and white pores on its underside.

Distribution: It can be found year-round on the lower trunk of birch trees and fallen birch branches.

Size: 10-20cm

Dryads Saddle (Cerioporus squamosus)

More Dryad's saddle. — Image by Andrew Hill via flickr.

Identification: This species of fungi grows in overlapping tiers on dead or dying broad-leaved trees, particularly elm, Beech and Sycamore. Recognisable by their distinctly textured, creamy-ochre brackets, these fungiemerge at soil level at the base of the host tree or higher up the trunk. The underside of the fruit features hundreds of honeycomb-shaped pores.

Distribution: This fungus fruits in the summer and again in autumn, and is most commonly seen from April to September on deciduous trees and fallen wood on the forest floor.

Size: Up to 70cm

Southern Bracket (Ganoderma australe)

Identification: Southern Bracket fungi can grow on both living and dying deciduous trees and first appear in the form of solid, white balls. Over a number of years, these develop into large, thick brackets with a flat brownish top and a white underside. As the fungus ages, the smooth top can become ridged and bumpy, and when the underside is scored it produces dark brown marks. This fungus can be easily confused with the Artists Fungi ( applanatum), however they can be distinguished by examining their spores under a microscope.

Distribution: This is the most common species of the Ganoderma genus and fruits on most deciduous trees from April to August.

Size: Up to 60cm

King Alfred’s Cakes (Daldinia concentrica)

Identification: These fungi present themselves in the form of hard, round lumps roughly the size of a golf ball and are a matt, pinky-brown colour when young. As they mature, they darken to a coal colour and become shiny in appearance. The outer surface is solid but cracks easily, while the inside of the fruit is easily identified by black and grey concentric rings that are darker than the flesh. King Alfred’s Cakes are also known as coal fungus as they can be used as kindling or firelighters.

Distribution: Can be found year-round in deciduous woodland, especially on fallen Beech and Ash branches.

Size: 2-10cm

Horses Hoof (Fomes fomentarius)

Horse Hoof Fungi, Knole Park, Sevenoaks, Kent. — Image by Nigel Turner via flickr.

Identification: As evident from the name, this species of fungi is typically shaped like a horse’s hoof, with a pointed top and wide bottom. Featuring concentrated ridges across its exterior and with a fleshy, fibrous inside, their blunt, rounded margin is often cream or yellow. Although they can vary from silvery-grey to black in colour, most specimens are shades of brown. Small circular pores under the bell start off cream in colour and darken to brown once the fruit has matured. On occasion, some Horses Hoofs appear in more of a traditional, flat bracket shape.

Distribution: Can be found growing year-round on weak, living or dead hardwood deciduous trees, particularly Birch.

Size: 5 to 45cm

Fungi Under the Lens and Fork: An NHBS Booklist

Parasol Mushroom by S. Rae via flickr. — Parasol Mushroom by S. Rae, via flickr.

In the early stages of the average mushroom-enthusiast’s journey, there comes a time where you begin to consider where you can take the interest of fungi further. Maybe you have identified all the mushrooms in your garden and want to learn more, or maybe you’ve even been intrepid, foraging and sampling some of the edible species out there, and are left wanting more. What ‘more’ looks like to some people becomes growing your own mushrooms, making spore prints, creating your own ink from the dripping tops of an inkcap mushroom, or perhaps you may want to look down a microscope to explore the sub-perceptual world of fungal microscopy, and that’s what these books aim to facilitate.

However you choose to flesh out your interest, the books below provide an excellent guide to the next steps in mycology.

Radical Mycology: A Treatise on Seeing and Working with Fungi

Radical Mycology is an awesome book in a very biblical sense. it inspires awe and in a more modern sense it is simply really, really cool. This book is a single man’s knowledge of all things fungi, distilled into 646 pages of rich prose, instruction and guidance. It moves through topics, that many other books have tackled in single volumes alone, in sections such as ethnomycology, culture, cultivation, medicine (*see footnote) and lab work, and does so in a way that doesn’t feel clunky or dense. I don’t think there is a topic in mycology that isn’t covered by this book in some way, and that to me makes it a unique treasure trove of knowledge. A field guide it is not, being quite large and very heavy, and it is not trying to pretend to be anything other than a treatise on the world of mycology. Filled with activities and projects that you can do yourself, it is not a passive book. It gets you interacting with and manipulating fungi, working with them in a way that you would not otherwise, and for that I think it is highly recommended for every reader, from the beginner to the professional. And if none of that takes your fancy, there is even a section on mushroom–related puns and a printout–and–play boardgame!

Growing Mushrooms at Home: The Complete Guide to Knowing, Growing and Loving Fungi

A more focussed look at cultivation and less dense than Radical Mycology, this book is primarily aimed at beginners who are looking to expand their knowledge of cultivation in its many forms, and is filled with simple, easy to follow text and beautiful images of mushrooms. It is designed to be accessible, so I would wager that this title is not suited for those of you with more experience in the field. But, for a first foray into mushroom cultivation this might be the book for you.

Organic Mushroom Farming and Mycoremediation: Simple to Advanced and Experimental Techniques for Indoor and Outdoor Cultivation

Organic Mushroom Farming and Mycoremediation takes a deeper dive into the same topic as the previous title. The book spans from easy projects that you can do at home with very little resources, to more advanced techniques that even the most experienced mycologist would enjoy having under their belt. The book also touches on mycoremediation (using mushrooms to improve the environment, from pollutants etc.), which is a wholly worthy topic on its own and will open your eyes to the potential for individuals to change the world for the better. After all, anyone who’s anyone in mycology has tried growing mushrooms on their old clothes, right?

Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms: A Companion Guide to the Mushroom Cultivator

No list of mushroom cultivation books would be complete without a title by Paul Stamets – and this one is no exception. A dated publication now, owing to its original publishing in 1988 and subsequent re-prints in 1994 and 2000, have meant this this book has taken a back seat to the new shiny covers in the field. However, this has not dulled its brilliance at all, and it remains one of the most influential books on mushroom cultivation. The book contains foundational knowledge on mushroom cultivation for the amateur grower and is still held in high regard by anyone with a slight interest in modern mushroom cultivation. A must read and a true introduction to mastering the art of mushroom cultivation.ng mycologist.

* ‘Mushroom medicine’ is a term used often in fungal–oriented literature, and sometimes quite liberally. I would be remiss to note that processes, procedures and purported effects are anecdotal and not always backed up by peer–reviewed empirical research, and in a lot of cases research is ongoing. This is not to say it is not true, it’s to say that more research is usually needed. Be aware of the legality of foraging mushrooms in your area and remember, don’t munch on a hunch! Always ID your mushrooms and if you are not 100% confident consult a professional.

Author interview with Richard A. Fortey: Close Encounters of the Fungal Kind

For years, Richard Fortey has found the uniqueness of fungi fascinating, from their strange forms, colours, reputation, rapid appearance and disappearance, to their often unseen role within the natural world. Close Encounters of the Fungal Kind takes the reader on an enthralling journey through Fortey’s forays searching for the strangest, most extraordinary and most delicious species. Focusing on a selection of the larger fungi and a handful of microfungi, this charming book celebrates their profusion, diversity and importance.

Richard Fortey is a palaeontologist, nature historian, writer and presenter who worked as the Natural History Museum’s senior palaeontologist until 2006. Richard has served on the councils of the Systematics Association, Palaeontographical Society, British Mycological Society and more. He was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1997 and was awarded an OBE in the 2023 New Years Honours for services to palaeontology and geology.

We recently spoke to Richard about his book, his first introduction to fungi, his hopes for the future of mycological research and more.

The fungal kingdom is enigmatic, and in recent years it has gripped the attention of naturalists and the wider public alike, thanks to books such as this one. Do you remember your first introduction to fungi that sent you on this path of discovery?

As a child in Ealing on the fringes of London, we were lucky enough to have a large garden. I remember wondering at a great clump of glistening ink caps that appeared around a rotting stump – apparently overnight. In a day or two they had turned into a black soup. About the only book available then (I must have been about ten years old) was The Observer’s Book of Mushrooms and Toadstools, but I managed to identify our stump fungus as Coprinus micaceus. Finding others in the book became a challenge.

Fungi are everywhere, spores floating through the air, mycelial networks underneath our feet, and even in the deep ocean. Can you describe one of your most unexpected encounters with the fungal kind whilst compiling this book?

At my sister-in-law’s house in the rainforest of New South Wales, there were a host of fungi on the ground and on fallen trees. One of them growing on a trunk seemed to be an old and edible friend – the Oyster Mushroom. But when I went out in the dark, I was amazed to see it glowing with a ghostly greenish light. It was an Aussie double of our oyster, and a decidedly poisonous one. I used a photo of it taken by its own light in the book, and it still looks quite unearthly even now I know its identity.

You open the book describing an enchanting trip to the hills of northern Italy for a celebration of the foragers’ favourite, the Bolete. If you were to organise a mycologically focused celebration in the UK, which location would you choose?

When it is in top form it is hard to beat the New Forest for variety and number of species. Boletes used to abound there, and every kind of milkcap and brittlegill still does, and it is about the only place to see the extraordinary Nail Fungus emerging from pony dung.

In your book, you allude to the challenges of understanding taxonomy as a novice or intermediate mushroom fan through the lens of species names. However, you also highlight the importance of both binomial nomenclature and common vernacular names. Do you have a favourite species name, both scientific and common? And to take this further do you have any personal/pet names that you find yourself using for species?

The common small bracket that grows in tiers on dead logs is known as the Turkey Tail – and it really does look like a fanned-out tail of this big bird, with a neat white rim and a neatly zoned dark upper surface. The best scientific name really doesn’t beat around the nomenclatural bush, and it must be Phallus impudicus. The Stinkhorn indeed resembles an upright human reproductive organ and even retains a distinctively scrotal sac at its base. And it smells like rotting meat – the species name refers to that. As for pet names, my young nephew always referred to the beautiful but poisonous scarlet Fly Agaric as “Killer Diller” – and that name seems to have stuck.

As someone with a long career in the sciences, a lifelong mycologist, and an inspiring naturalist, which direction would you like to see mycology take in the next few years as it expands as both a field of research and a subject of interest?

There’s no question that DNA studies are taking mycology into a new direction – not least enabling us to ‘see’ fungi even without having their fruitbodies, for example, by sampling soils in different habitats. I believe that fungi are even better indicators of environmental health than our plants, and I really hope that conservation bodies – and farmers – realize that they need to fully recognize the contribution of fungi to total biodiversity. There are so many different species that identification often poses a challenge, and I personally welcome the development of apps to help, but there is no substitute for getting down on hands and knees on the forest floor. If a fraction of those who make birds their hobby took up mycology it would do no end of good to public awareness.

Finally, what’s occupying your time at the moment? Are you working on any other projects that you can tell us about?

I have had an ongoing project raising fungus gnats – which are also very diverse. One large fungus can feed a hundred tiny flies, and these in turn feed insectivores. Their importance in the food chain has been underestimated. Which species of fungi feed which gnats is still incompletely known, however this is the kind of project I can do in a small woodland like my own.

Close Encounters of the Fungal Kind is available from our online bookstore.

Beyond the Cap: Is Mycology only about Mushrooms?

For many people, the mention of mushrooms conjures up images of stroganoff, druids, or damp housing. However, for those of us who are mycologically inclined, a vast kingdom of species, ecological interactions, and secondary metabolites awaits to boggle the mind. Fungi are everywhere, circulating through the air as spores, forming networks below our feet, and even influencing popular culture. But what is mycology?

three mushrooms on a bed of leaf litter. one is much larger than the others. they all have clean white stems and spotted red caps — Image by Bernard Spragg via Flickr

The History of Mycology

Originating from the Greek language, mycology translates to the study of fungus. The term was first coined in the early 19th century, but the study of fungi goes much further back. The Greeks pioneered written fungal observations, initially through records of poisonings. They were also the first to attempt to classify mushrooms (fungi), albeit as plants with missing parts, a narrative that persisted until the late 1960s when the fungal kingdom was first described.

Since the Greeks, theories about fungi origins ebbed and flowed throughout written history. From a modern taxonomic standpoint, Linnaeus (the father of modern taxonomy who formalised binomial nomenclature) and his contemporaries were integral to mycology, describing groups (genera) that still exist today, such as Boletus and Agaricus – though these have been heavily adapted from the original classifications. However, at this time, mushrooms were still classified as plants within the subcategory of ‘Cryptogamia’, due to the lack of apparent sexual organs, a similar grouping to that of the Greeks. But is mycology solely concerned with mushrooms, colloquially known as toadstools, the enigmatic, ephemeral fruits of fungal species?

The short answer is no. Once thought to be asexual plants, mushrooms are actually the reproductive structures of fungal species that form networks of organic strands called hyphae, collectively known as mycelium. When two sexually compatible hyphal strands from the same species meet, they twist and writhe, forming a knot. It is from this mycelial joint enterprise that the mushroom fruits, hence the term ‘fruiting bodies’.

a group of brown mushrooms growing on a fallen tree. they have dark brown stems and light brown caps with a yellow underside — Image by Lukas Large via Flickr

Fungal Groups

Boletus and Agaricus are prime examples of iconic toadstool-forming fungal genera. Once fully developed, the toadstool drops spores, either from pores (in the case of Boletus) or gills (as with Agaricus). These genera are members of Basidiomycota (the spore-droppers) that release spores to fall to the ground. The other major fungal group, Ascomycota, the spore-shooters, fire spores from specially adapted tissue into the wind. Fungi classified as Basidiomycetes do not exclusively form toadstools, there is a large variety of fruitbody formations, each with unique identifying features and characteristics. Examples include brackets, puffballs, earthstars, stinkhorns, corals, toothed fungi, jellies, rusts, and smuts.

Ascomycetes, the spore-shooters, exhibit a similarly large variety of fruit body forms. Many ascomycete fruit bodies are considered cup fungi, such as the morel – a forager’s favourite. Cup fungi belong to the Pezizomycetes. This subgroup also contains truffles, which are prized by chefs, foodies, and mammals of various sizes. Other intriguing forms include saddle-shaped fungi, earth tongues, and club- and finger-shaped fungi.

Ascomycete fungi are known for their propensity for parasitism and pathogenicity, such as the ever-fascinating Cordyceps (zombie ant fungus), made famous by The Last of Us, or Ergot (Claviceps Purpurea), a plant pathogen. Ergot is hallucinogenic when consumed by mammals and most famously caused a ‘dancing plague’ among villagers in the early 20th century. Some fungi do not produce hyphae and therefore do not form mycelial networks or fruit bodies. A famous example of an Ascomycete fungus that doesn’t produce spores, mushrooms, or mycelium is yeast (Saccharomyces). Yeast is unicellular and present in the air and has had a dramatic impact on human societies via bread and beer, a winning combination.

A group of small, white mushrooms with pleated caps — Image by Bernard Spragg via Flickr

Lichens

Lichens represent a fascinating intersection of biology, ecology, and mycology. These composite organisms are the result of a symbiotic partnership between a primary photo-biont, typically algae or cyanobacteria, and a fungal host. The photo-biont contributes photosynthetic sugars, while the fungus creates a stable environment for the photo-biont to thrive. This mutualistic relationship is an ingenious ecological strategy that allows both partners to survive in diverse and often extreme environments. Interestingly, as mycologists delve deeper into lichen biology, more complex partnerships are being discovered. Notably, 98% of the fungi associated with lichens belong to the ascomycetes, the group of spore-shooting fungi, and almost half of all ascomycetes participate in lichen formation.

a yellow lichen on stone. It has a flaky, seaweed like appearance — Image by Simon Lee via Flickr

Slime Moulds

Let’s touch on slime moulds, another group commonly mistaken for fungi. These soil-dwelling amoeba, originally described as ‘fast-growing fungus’, were integrated into fungal evolutionary history until the 1970s. Slime moulds share similarities with fungi in their lifecycles and ecological niches, but despite their name and popular belief, they belong to a different kingdom altogether – the protozoan kingdom. It’s easy to see why they were once considered members of the fungal kingdom, as they ‘fruit’ under similar conditions and are often found on rotten substrates in damp forests.

A yellow slime mould on a tree trunk. the top is a large blob of bright yellow shiny slime, trailing down through bright yellow veins — Image by Bernard Spragg via Flickr

The often-overlooked fungal kingdom has been a key component to the development of life on earth and is often cited as one of the drivers for terrestrial evolution. Alongside its significance in evolutionary history, this unique kingdom has also benefitted humans for millennia and is expected to play a vital role in future healthcare, farming and food security. In addition to these significant contributions to civilisation, fungi are a delight to stumble across in the wild and are an object of beauty and wonder for many. Whether you are a seasoned mycologist, budding enthusiast or a complete beginner, fungi are bound to captivate you with their peculiarities – so why not head out this autumn, explore the forest floor, and see what you can find?

Below we have listed some recommendations for popular field guides and recent titles suitable for mycologists, as well as the NHBS Beginners Field Mycology Kit:

Entangled Life (The Illustrated Edition)

This astonishing bestseller is now available in a beautifully illustrated gift edition and features over 100 spectacular full colour images

Collins Fungi Guide

This extensive guide covers the fungi of the British Isles in astonishing detail and is written, and illustrated, by leading mycologists and horticultural scientists

Close Encounters of the Fungal Kind

Acclaimed scientist and author Richard Fortey acknowledges the otherworldliness of fungi and marvels at their charm in this enthusiastic and passionate book

The Hidden Kingdom of Fungi

An illuminating account of the invisible fungi that share our world, this book explores the evolution and adaptation of these organisms, the latest research surrounding the fungal kingdom and more

The Little Book of Fungi

A beautifully designed pocketbook on the world’s fungi, this expertly written work contains an astonishing amount of information and covers a range of topics, including myths, folklore and modern culture

Bloomsbury Concise Mushroom Guide

An illustrated mini field guide packed with information on over 200 species found in Britain. A concise written account covers size, description, habitat and the season in which each fungus may be found.

NHBS Beginners Field Mycology Kit

This comprehensive kit equips you with the essentials to observe and document fungi in any weather. The kit contains a Singlet Loupe 21mm 10x Hand Lens, a Rite in the Rain Spiral Bound Notebook and four Field Studies Council Guides (The Fungi Name-trail, Distinctive Gilled Fungi, Distinctive Non-gilled Fungi and Distinctive Grassland Fungi).

Mycology shortlist: Everything you need to know as a budding mycologist

Mushrooms have always been on the fringes of both the web of life and science in general, existing in the brackets between plant and animal in the minds of many. The Kingdom Fungi has, much like its constituents, rarely burst out into the light from the dark corners of popular science, that is, until recently. The last few years have seen Fungi of all forms thrust to the forefront of popular literature and medical research, which has generated a wave of renewed interest in the big questions around our mycelial cousins (after all they are eukaryotic cells just as we are). Where do they live, what can they do for us? And how can modern science get under the bonnet (pun intended) of these elusive but ultimately extremely important organisms?

If this surge in interest has managed to pass you by, or if you are already a budding (pun also intended) enthusiast, then this non-exhaustive, short-list of books will bring you up to date on the history and present knowledge of mushrooms and touch on the cultural importance of these diverse eukaryotes.

Fantastic Fungi – Paul Stamets and other contributors

How Mushrooms Can Heal, Shift Consciousness & Save the Planet

No list of mushroom focussed literature would be complete without mentioning one of the most influential figures in modern mushroom science, Paul Stamets, in cohort with some of the eminent minds of modern mushroom science and opinion. This book, which accompanies the Netflix documentary of the same name, covers many of the same topics but presents them in an accessible way with full referencing should you wish to take the topic further and research in your own time. The book covers a full complement of topics, ranging from the concept of a wood wide web of interconnected trees and fungal partners, to how chemical science can harness the unique biological properties of a range of mushroom species to give us vital and useful medicines, remedial chemistries, and solutions to some of our most pressing issues in modern life including national security, combatting bioweaponry, and pollution solutions on a global scale. Each page is accompanied by rich and detailed macro–photography characterising some of the unique and beautiful forms of these organisms and will leave a distinct impression that there is a whole world out there still waiting to be explored. The book closes with a dive into the what ifs that surround looking at the world with a mycelial lens and posits some interesting theories on the very sources of human existence and our co-evolution with mushrooms itself.

In Search of Mycotopia – Doug Bierend

Citizen Science, Fungi Fanatics, and the Untapped Potential of Mushrooms

Hailed as ‘a natural sequel’ to Merlin Sheldrake’s Entangled Life. In Search of Mycotopia occupies very much the same area in most people’s libraries. An in depth and developed look beneath the often-elusive veil of the field of mycology and all its intricacies, this book takes a human–centric approach to the social side of the recent explosion in citizen mushroom science and how its these people that are driving development in this field before the lumbering pharma giants are able to gain a foothold. Focussing on the open-source nature of how modern mushroom research is conducted, it covers a range of topics that may be familiar to those already interested in this field but is also highly accessible to those who have not been introduced to this dynamic and interesting world. There is more nuance to the way that questions are asked around the great potential and almost utopic ideas that are posited in other mushroom literature, but this does not make this book any less inspiring or interesting and is a great hopping on point for the first stop on the mycelium express.

Entangled Life and Entangled Life (Illustrated Edition) – Merlin Sheldrake

How Fungi Make Our Worlds, Change Our Minds and Shape Our Futures

Entangled Life is a colourful journey through one Merlin Sheldrake’s experiences with mushrooms and the niches which they occupy in everyday life. He adopts a ‘mushroom first’ perspective while investigating the reasons why mushrooms behave and perform in the way that they do, first leading with the ‘how’s,’ before following up with the ‘whys.’ Whether this is in a commercial, foraging, or clinical setting, seemingly the mycelium themselves posit the questions surrounding their unique biology and Merlin seeks to draw out answers and clarify what makes them so special to both us and the planet. He also leans on the cultural aspects of mycology and helps clarify just how important mushrooms have been in our history and are likely to be in our future. This is an excellent book for those who want to build a strong foundation of knowledge for modern mushroom science but is also great for those who want to take a slightly deeper dive into the bigger questions surrounding mycology. The new illustrated edition is a pared-down version of the full-text version and instead replaces some of the larger passages of text with high quality macro photographs that are described in such rich detail in the original text. It is an exquisite graphic accompaniment to the original book.

UK Fungus Day 2023

What is UK Fungus Day?

UK Fungus Day takes place on Saturday 7th October and is organised by the British Mycological Society. This annual celebration of fungi is an open invitation to everyone in the UK to experience and appreciate the wonder of fungi and to find out more about these fascinating organisms. There really is something for everyone: as well as traditional fungal forays where you can join an experienced mycologist to find and identify fungi in the wild, there are also open days at UK university laboratories, special museum exhibits, talks, films, craft activities and quizzes.

Why are fungi important?

Often described as the 5th kingdom, fungi are neither plant nor animal, and our knowledge of their biology and ecology is increasing all the time. They are incredibly important to the functioning of almost all ecosystems on earth (and have even been found in space!).

One of their key roles is as a decomposer. Fungi convert organic matter from dead organisms into a form that other plants or animals can more easily utilise, making them a vital part of the food chain. They also form essential symbiotic relationships with plant roots, providing nutrients to the plant and protecting them from parasites and infection, while they themselves feed on the plant.

Although we usually think of fungi as the mushrooms that are visible above ground, they also create huge networks of strands, known as hyphae, which stretch out beneath the soil. These hyphae contribute to the structure of the soil, holding particles together and helping the soil to retain moisture where it would otherwise rapidly drain away. This underground network is considered to be so important that a project is underway to map the “circulatory system of the planet” in an attempt to protect it from damage and improve its ability to absorb and store carbon dioxide.

As well as these key ecosystem functions, we also value fungi for their role in our own diets. Whether that is by eating them directly, or utilising their ability to ferment foods such as bread or beer, they have been an important gastronomic ingredient for thousands of years. They also contribute to human health in other ways. In the 1920s penicillin was discovered, an antibiotic produced by the mould Penicillium which has since saved countless numbers of lives and changed the entire face of modern medicine.

Fungi may even have a role to play in remediating polluted environments. Current research is looking into whether they could be used to break down petroleum products, heavy metals and plastics, and even absorb radiation following nuclear disasters.

How do I get involved in UK Fungus Day?

To find out what events are on near you on UK Fungus Day, head over to the Fungus Day website where you can find a list of all the activities planned for 7th October. On their website you will also find information on how to enter this year’s photo competition, as well as quizzes, and a host of other activity ideas for you to celebrate UK Fungus Day in your own home.

Mushrooms and Toadstools of Britain & Europe series

The fourth and final volume of Geoffery Kibby’s Mushrooms and Toadstools of Britain & Europe has now been published. This privately published series consists of four essential, user-friendly guides containing an enormous amount of information, fully illustrated and aimed at everyone, from the fungi enthusiast to the expert mycologist. Author Geoffrey Kibby is one of Britain’s foremost experts on identifying mushrooms in the field.

The first volume, Mushrooms and Toadstools of Britain & Europe, Volume 1 was published in 2017 and has since been updated twice, with the third edition published in 2020. It illustrates the non-agarics, including puffballs, stinkhorns, earthstars and chanterelles. A total of 650 species are illustrated via watercolour paintings, along with drawings of the spores and other useful microscopic features. Geoffrey Kibby, professional mycologist and editor of Field Mycology, first became interested in fungi when he was 13 and he now aims to produce the sort of works he would have wanted as an aspiring young mycologist.

These books are based on Kibby’s years of experience in the field, and focus on illustrating species that are not readily available in other guides. Fungi are an understudied group, with around 15,000 different species in the UK, from moulds and mildew to yeasts and mushrooms. They are found in almost any habitat, living on decaying organic matter such as leaf litter or dead wood. They play different roles in many different ecosystems, but many are key in the breakdown of organic matter, recycling nutrients such as nitrogren and phosphorus into the soil. This, in turn, allows the growth of plants which provide food for animals such as insects, mammals and birds. They themselves can also be a source of food for both humans and other animals, and are often rich in vitamins and protein. Fungi also play a role in the carbon cycle, capturing carbon from the atmosphere and storing it in the soil, reducing excess atmospheric carbon and helping to fight climate change.

Volumes 2 and 3, published in February 2020 and May 2021 respectively, cover many of the families of the agarics (gilled mushrooms). Volume 2 illustrates 750 species and varieties, mainly white-spored agarics, with volume 3 covering 680 species. The illustrations are watercolour paintings, and highlight important characteristics that are sometimes difficult to ascertain from photographs. All four guides also include illustratations of microscopic features next to each painting.

Fungi have become increasingly vulnerable in the British Isles for a variety of reasons, including the loss of habitats, changing rural practices, intensive land management and over-picking. Important fungi habitats such as unimproved grasslands, woodland, sand dunes and saltmarshes have declined severely in the UK. For example, over 97% of our species-rich grassland has been lost in the last few decades and the UK is one of the least densely forested countries in Europe, with woodland covering only 13.2% of the UK’s land surface. However, many of the current biodiversity and climate change strategies overlook fungi, focusing instead on flora and fauna. One important element of combating this and enabling effective conservation, beyond repairing and expanding habitats, is spreading the knowledge of how to survey and identify many of the fungi species we have in the UK. These monographs provide excellent guidance for any serious field mycologist or for those interested in getting into field mycology.

This newest and final volume covers the families Bolbitiaceae, Tubariaceae, Macrocystidiaceae, Inocybaceae and Entolomataceae. An addendum illustrates a number of species recorded in Britain since volumes 1-3 of this series were produced, and includes a number of recent name changes. With over 380 species illustrations, the whole series covers almost 2,500 species.

The final volume of the Mushrooms and Toadstools of Britain & Europe series has now been published.

The NHBS Guide to UK Puffball Identification

Puffballs are a type of fungi in the division Basidiomycota. They are so named due to the dust-like spores that are emitted as clouds when the fruitbody bursts. They are characterised by their lack of an open cap with visible spore-bearing gills. The spores are, instead, produced internally within the gasterothecium, a spheroidal fruitbody. Stalked puffballs have, as the name suggests, a stalk to support this structure, which is tough, woody and made of infertile material, whereas true puffballs have no visible stalk. Some species, such as ones attached to the substrate by mycelial cords, may become unattached and roll with the wind.

Puffballs are saprotrophic, meaning they feed on non-living organic matter, known as detritus. They break down detritus into utilisable nutrients and minerals, which maintains soil health and aids plant growth. Puffball species can be identified by the shape and size of the fruitbody, any surface features and the presence and shape of a stem. Species can also be determined by the examination of spores using a microscope. When cut in half, young puffballs whose spores have not begun to develop will be pure white all the way through. Older species turn yellow or brown on the inside. This can help distinguish them from earthball species, which has a dark interior (or gleba), or other mushroom species, which have visible gills.

Most puffballs are not poisonous but can resemble young poisonous mushrooms such as the death cap. True puffballs are edible when immature but any spore can cause digestive upset if consumed and caution should always be taken as some fungi are highly poisonous. This blog is not meant to be used as a guide for foraging. This blog covers the key identification features, distribution, season and habitat preference of some of the puffball species known in the UK.

Common Puffball (Lycoperdon perlatum)

Distribution: Common and widespread in Britain and Ireland
Habitat preference: Deciduous and coniferous woodlands, grasslands and along roadsides.
Season: July to November
What to look for: This species usually has a pear-shaped fruitbody that is 3–6cm tall. Its surface is covered in pearl-like attachments, called pyramidal warts, that are different sizes. These warts begin as a cream colour before turning ochre and falling off to leave an olive-brown surface marked with scars. Older specimens will have a dark area at the apex, where the pore hole develops. The common puffball has a visible stem that resembles an often distorted inverted cone. The spore mass is olive-brown and turns dark brown when fully mature.

Giant Puffball (Calvatia gigantea)

Distribution: Widespread and fairly common
Habitat preference: Roadside verges, field edges, nettle and other rank vegetation, woodland edges and occasionally found in open woodland or woodland clearings
Season: July to November
What to look for: This species can achieve a massive size, typically 10–80cm across. They are initially white, with a lumpy and leathery appearance, connected to the substrate by a root-like mycelial cord. While the interior of the immature puffball is white, mature specimens have a greenish-brown gleba.
Did you know? This species is known to form fairy rings. The mycelium hyphae spreads horizontally in a radial pattern. The hyphae can then sprout fruitbodies on the surface, forming a circular pattern thought in folklore to be the dwelling places of fairies and other magical beings.

Peter O’Connor aka anemoneprojectors via Flickr

Pestle Puffball (Lycoperdon excipuliforme)

Distribution: Widespread and fairly common
Habitat preference: Woodland and short grassland
Season: August to November
What to look for: The pestle puffball is initially white but turns ochre as it ages, and grows to between 10–20cm tall. The globe-shaped head grows between 4–10cm wide. The stem-like section, called a stipe, is often wrinkled in appearance and usually around half the diameter of the head. It is covered in pointed warts that fall off, leaving a smooth surface.
Did you know? After the head has ruptured and released the spores, the stipe will grow and remain intact throughout winter.

Dusky Puffball (Lycoperdon nigrescens)

Distribution: Widespread, fairly common
Habitat preference: Variety of habitats, such as woodland, moorland and sand dunes
Season: June to September
What to look for: The dusky puffball is usually between 2-3.5cm tall and 2-4cm across. It is pear-shaped, with a surface that begins pale brown before turning darker. It is covered in dark-brown spines that fall off as the puffball matures. This species has a visible, short stem with shorter spines. The spore mass inside is initially white and firm, before turning yellowish-brown and then dark brown and powdery.

Mosaic Puffball (Lycoperdon utriforme)

Distribution: Widespread but uncommon
Habitat preference: Sandy open pastures or heaths
Season: July to November
What to look for: The common name for this species is derived from the pattern across the head of the fruiting body, which develops as the specimen matures and the outer wall breaks into patches. It is subspherical to pear-shaped, between 6–15cm across and up to 15cm tall. The fruitbody turns grey-brown with age and the scales begin to fall away before the fruitbody eventually ruptures.
Did you know? The base of this species can also persist for several months after the fruitbody has burst. It resembles a blunt-ended inverted cone.
Other synonyms: Calvatia caelata, Calvatia utriformis, Handkea utriformis, Lycoperdon bovista, Lycoperdon caelatum, Lycoperdon sinclairii, Lycoperdon utriforme

Brown Puffball (Bovista nigrescens)

Distribution: Widely distributed, more frequent in southern counties
Habitat preference: Grassland and pastures, but can also be found in fields, lawns or roadside verges
Season: Late summer to autumn
What to look for: The fruitbody is between 3–6cm across, with a slight point at the bottom. This species lacks a stem and is attached to the substrate by a mycelial cord. The outer wall is initially white but flakes off as the fruitbody matures to expose the dark purple-brown inner wall.

Saxifraga/Peter Meininger via freenatureimages.eu

Stump Puffball (Lycoperdon pyriforme)

Distribution: Widespread and fairly frequent
Habitat preference: Grows mainly on decaying trees and logs
Season: July to early December
What to look for: This species is typically 1.5–4cm across and around 3–4cm tall. It has a pestle- to pear-shaped fruitbody that is initially covered in short pyramidal warts. The originally white surface browns with age, developing a dark area at the apex where the pore will occur. The stump puffball is attached to the substrate by several mycelial filaments. The stem remains white as the head matures.