Tag: Introduction to Habitats

Coastal sand dunes are habitats created by sand, seashell fragments and other sediments that are moved by wave and wind action along a coastline or beach until they become trapped above the strandline. This usually occurs where vegetation is growing as their roots and leaves help to bind the sand together, preventing the sand from being blown away by the wind. There are several different types of sand dunes, categorised by their position on the shoreline, age, morphology and stability:

• Embryo dunes: The youngest dunes at their earliest stage of development, usually closest to the shore and may still be covered by high tides. This area usually has high salinity and is a very dry environment with rapid drainage and a lot of exposure. 
• Mobile dunes: These are dunes that are no longer covered by the highest tide but are still affected by wind; sand gets blown from the beach onto, over and away from these areas. 
• Semi-fixed dunes: This is where vegetation cover has become more continuous with fewer areas of bare sand.
• Fixed dunes: These are dunes that have very limited free space, with few areas of bare sand and almost continuous vegetation. 
• Dune slack: The low-lying depressions between sand dunes. These areas can often become filled with fresh or brackish water, creating small wetlands known as interdunal wetlands or interdunal ponds. These areas can warm quickly as they’re often very shallow, providing an ideal habitat for many invertebrates. 
• Dune scrub: A later successional stage, where a stable dune has been colonised with scrub species. These areas can continue to develop into dune-heath and older woodland. 

Sand dunes can be rich in wildlife and are important habitats for birds, reptiles, invertebrates, a variety of plant species, lichens and fungi. This is particularly the case in older, more stable dune habitats. They are classified as UK BAP Priority Habitat and several Priority List species have been recorded utilising sand dunes.

What species can you find here?

Flora

Differences in flora diversity can be found depending on the position, age, morphology and stability of the dunes. Sand dunes that are still inundated at high tide can be dominated by halophilic (salt-tolerant) plants, whereas dune slack areas may be filled with fresh groundwater, allowing them to support several freshwater plant species. Areas of low stability will most likely see lower plant diversity, with the community present dominated by pioneer species. More stable dunes are generally dominated by woody plants and have higher diversity.

Sea sandwort (Honckenya peploides)

This is one of several pioneer species usually found in embryo dunes, as it is highly stress-tolerant. These plants allow sand to begin to accumulate, raising the top of the dune above the high tide level, while also adding organic matter to the sand through dying and decaying. This allows the sand dune to better retain water, allowing other plants to colonise the area.

Marram grass (Ammophila arenaria)

This is a dune building grass as it is tall and robust, with matted roots, therefore it is very effective at trapping and stabilising sand. It can help to form very high mobile dunes as it grows at a rate of 1m per year. It is usually the dominant plant on mobile dunes and is a familiar sight on many of our coasts. By stabilising the sand and adding nutrients through its dead leaves, this plant can allow sand dunes to be colonised by many other plant species.

Harebell (Campanula rotundifolia)

As sand dunes become more fixed and vegetation cover becomes more continuous, the area can be very species-rich. Many wildflowers, including harebells, can be found there, providing a food source for species such as invertebrates. Due to the wide range of environmental factors in these habitats, such as wind, salinity levels and availability of shelter and fresh water, there is often a huge variety of wildflowers.

Harebells, also called bluebells of Scotland, are tough and resilient plants, living in dry, open areas such as sand dunes.  While their flowering period can vary, it’s usually from July to November in the British Isles, providing a vital source of nectar for bees during the autumn.

For more examples of wildflowers, check out our guide to UK wild flower identification.

Silver birch (Betula pendula)

The final successional stages of sand dunes include colonisation by woody plants, creating dune scrubs and, finally, deciduous woodland. These woodland are often lower in species diversity, as woody species out-compete others, but the habitat will remain stable for extended periods, barring any disturbance. The type of vegetation present in the climax stage is determined by a number of factors, such as climate, exposure, soil pH, grazing level and management type. Birch trees are one of the woody species that can colonise sand dunes, particularly acidic dunes with open areas for young birch trees to grow.

Fungi

While fungi are usually associated with damper habitats, there is a variety that can be found in sand dune habitats, such as the earthtongue fungus (Glutinoglossum glutinosum), dune stinkhorn (Phallus hadriani) and several puffball species. There are also rare species that can only be found in sand dunes.

Dune waxcap (Hygrocybe conicoides)

This species of waxcap occurs mainly on short grass in coastal sand dune habitats, such as on the edges of dune slacks. Waxcaps, fungi in the genus of agarics, or gilled fungi, are usually brightly coloured fungi with dry to waxy caps. They are mainly associated with unimproved grasslands, though outside of Europe they are more commonly found in woodland. Dune waxcaps resemble the blackening waxcap (Hygrocybe conica) when young, but older dune waxcaps only darken slightly, usually just on their stem, unlike the blackening waxcap.

Collared Earthstar (Geastrum triplex)

While collared earthstars are most likely found in woodlands, particularly those with a high level of leaf litter, they can also be found on sand dunes. This star-shaped fungus initially looks like a ball, similar to a puffball, before splitting open. Other earthstars, including the dwarf earthstar (Geastrum schmidelii), can also be found in sand dune habitats, particularly mature sand dune systems. They’re often found in colonies with several fruitbodies growing together.

Fauna

Sand dunes support a diverse range of fauna species, many of which are specifically adapted to live in these dynamic habitats. Similarly to shingle beaches, which will be covered in another article, this area is a key habitat for several ground-nesting birds, such as the Ringed Plover and Skylarks, grazing species such as rabbits, and invertebrates such as bees, digger wasps and other insects.

The red-banded sand wasp (Ammophila sabulosa)

Sand wasps reproduce by hunting caterpillars, paralysing them using their sting and burying them in burrows with the sand wasp’s egg. The females dig their burrows in sandy ground, with a nearby area of vegetation that would support their prey. Areas of sand dunes can be rich in invertebrate species, particularly where diverse vegetation is present.

Northern Dune Tiger Beetle (Cicindela hybrida)

This rare beetle hunts on bare sand, preying on ants, spiders, moth larvae and flies. As they need areas of open, moving sand, they are less likely to be found in older, more stabilised sand dunes. Therefore, lack of management allowing succession and reduced sediment deposition due to development or flood defences reduce the availability of suitable habitats. Conservation efforts to restore mobile sands and remove areas of scrub are helping to provide more habitats for the northern dune tiger beetle. 

Sand lizard (Lacerta agilis)

Sand dunes support a variety of vertebrate species, including the sand lizard, one of the UK’s rarest reptiles. Their distribution is restricted to a small number of sites, such as protected heathlands and sand dunes. They require sunny habitats with vegetation for shelter and undisturbed, open sand to lay their eggs. Their numbers are impacted by habitat loss but there are several conservation efforts working towards increasing their populations. These involve a combination of habitat restoration, monitoring, reintroduction and encouraging beneficial policies and practices.

Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus)

Several birds of prey use sand dune habitats as hunting grounds due to the presence of ground-nesting birds, lizards and some grazing species such as rabbits. Sparrowhawks can be found across Britain and Ireland, mainly in gardens, woodland and urban settings, but they can also be found on sand dunes, particularly if woodland is close by. They prey mainly on small birds, but they have also been recorded taking bats.

Chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax)

Once extinct in Britain, Choughs now have a growing population on the Cornish and Welsh coasts, as well as a few other spots around the UK. They hunt invertebrates and larvae in the exposed sandy soils of sand dunes, using their long, curved bills. With only a small population in the UK, it is important to maintain suitable areas of habitats, therefore a number of projects are reintroducing grazing species to dunes. These species help to maintain areas of open ground and short grass, preventing sand dunes from becoming scrubland.

For more information on other species that may occur in sand dune habitats, including reptiles, coastal birds, waders and other mammal and bird species, check out some of our other guides to UK species identification.

Threats

The main threats to coastal sand dunes are development, recreational use, flood defences, falling water tables, climate change, invasive species and poor management. The development of housing, industry and areas such as golf courses can result in the damage or destruction of sand dune habitats. This, along with recreational use, such as excessive pedestrian and vehicular use, can increase levels of erosion and modify vegetation. Fragile sand dune habitats can be altered, reducing their stability and their ability to support diverse wildlife.

Poor management allows encroachment by shrubs and trees that, if left unchecked, could turn sand dune habitats into woodland areas, which can impact their suitability for specialist species. Flood defences can impact the natural processes of sediment removal and deposition, which can prevent sand dunes from developing or growing. These areas can become depleted if there is not enough sediment deposited to replace the amount removed by wind or wave action. The creation of harbours and other coastal structures can also disrupt natural sediment processes. Alternatively, these structures can also prevent sediment removal, causing a build-up of sediment.

Further threats include invasive species, such as cordgrass (Spartina anglica), which can dominate sand dunes, reducing the abundance and diversity of native plant species and reducing the number of animals that the area can support. Climate change can also threaten this habitat, as increasing intensity and frequency of storms can impact how sand dunes are formed. Sea-level rise, in combination with development, can also reduce the amount of area available for this habitat to form; this is termed coastal squeeze.

While grazing is used as a method for controlling over-stabilisation and succession, overgrazing can also impact sand dunes. It can reduce the development and spread of vegetation, preventing sand stabilisation and, therefore, reducing the diversity and abundance of the species the habitat can support. This also allows sand dunes to become depleted by wave or wind action, particularly where structures such as flood defences and development have reduced sediment deposition.

Conservation

To manage the impacts of these threats, many sand dune areas have been given Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) designations, which control the amount of development that can occur. Soft engineering approaches to flood defences including beach replenishment, the restoration of stabilised sand dunes and managed realignment, where areas are allowed to be inundated by the sea, can often be a more natural approach to reducing the impacts of waves compared to hard engineerings, such as sea walls and breakwaters. These can allow the natural process of sediment removal and deposition, facilitating the development of new sand dune environments.

As mentioned, sand dunes are subject to natural habitat succession, often ending in a stable deciduous woodland habitat. To maintain sand dune habitats, encroachment by woody species must be controlled and areas of open, mobile sand should be created as this prevents soil development and, therefore, over-stabilisation.

Areas of significance

Lindisfarne National Nature Reserve, Northumberland

Braunton Burrows, North Devon

Holkham NNR, North Norfolk

Kenfig NNR, Glamorgan, South Wales

Forvie NNR, Aberdeenshire, Scotland

Further reading

The Biology of Coastal Sand Dunes

Coastal zones are becoming increasingly topical as they face relentless pressure from a number of threats. This book provides a comprehensive introduction to the formation, dynamics, maintenance and perpetuation of coastal sand dune systems.

 

Sand Dune Conservation, Management and Restoration

This book deals with the development of temperate coastal sand dunes and the way these have been influenced by human activity. Options for management are considered and the likely consequences of taking a particular course of action highlighted.

 

Field Guide to Coastal Wildflowers of Britain, Ireland and Northwest Europe

This field guide covers more than 600 species of wildflowers and other coastal flora found in Britain and Ireland, and coastal mainland north-west Europe. Detailed species accounts describe the wildflowers, grasses, sedges and rushes that occur on the coast or in abundance within sight of the sea.

 

Wildflowers of the Sefton Coast

This book describes the typical wildflowers associated with each of the Sefton Coast’s main habitats from the saltmarshes and ‘green beaches’ to the sand-dunes; the latter showing a sequence of successional stages running inland, from the newly-formed strandline and embryo dunes, through mobile and fixed-dunes to older woodland and dune-heath.

 

Beaches and Coasts

A new edition of a unique textbook that provides an exhaustive treatment of the world’s different coasts, with a focus on climate change sea-level rise. Seeking to better educate students and readers about the sustainability of coasts and coastal environment, this exciting book offers enlightening coverage of coastal geology, processes and environments.

Beach and Dune Restoration

This new edition continues the theme of the first edition: the need to restore the biodiversity, ecosystem health, and ecosystem services provided by coastal landforms and habitats, especially in the light of climate change. This will be valuable for coastal scientists, engineers, planners, and managers, as well as shorefront residents

 

Sea of Sand: A History of Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve

The Great Sand Dunes sprawl along the eastern fringes of the vast San Luis Valley of south-central Colorado. Sea of Sands is the definitive history of the natural, cultural, and political forces that helped shape this incomparable landscape.

Grassland habitats are areas of vegetation dominated by grasses. Similarly to heathland, grassland can be divided into lowland and upland (above 200m). The type of sediment can also be used to classify grassland habitats, such as calcareous (lime-rich soils), acidic (sands, gravels and siliceous rocks) and neutral (clay and loam soils). They are often maintained by human intervention, through mowing, fertilising, drainage, burning or chemical treatments, as well as livestock grazing. They can also be maintained by natural processes such as grazing or browsing, or due to exposed conditions at the coast or at high altitudes where shrub and tree growth is limited.

Grassland can also be separated into unimproved, semi-improved and improved. This refers to the amount of agricultural interference in the habitat. Improved grasslands have undergone high modification or intensive agriculture, and thus typically have fewer species with a limited variety of grasses and flowering plants. (white clover, perennial ryegrass and other agricultural species usually cover more than 50% of improved grasslands). These habitats are covered more in-depth in another blog: The NHBS Introduction to Habitats: Farmland.

Semi-improved grassland is a transition category between improved and unimproved grasslands that have undergone some modification through the use of, for example, fertilisers, herbicides and grazing. These habitats have a reduced range of plant species compared to unimproved grassland but a wider diversity than improved grassland.

Unimproved grassland, also termed species-rich, has not been artificially fertilised, ploughed or reseeded. Grassland habitats are considered to be species-rich if they have more than fifteen plant species per square metre, a wildflower and sedge cover of more than 30% (excluding creeping buttercup, white clover and invasive weed species), and less than 10% cover of white clover and perennial ryegrass. Species-rich grassland habitats not only support a large number of flora species but also many fauna species such as invertebrates and birds. They improve and maintain the health of soils, protect against soil erosion, sequester carbon and provide food for browsing and grazing species such as deer and livestock.

Other examples of grassland habitats include lowland meadows, upland hay meadows, montane grasslands, purple moor-grass and rush pasture, marshy grassland, wet grassland and calaminarian grassland.

What species can you find here?

Flora

The number and type of flora species found in grasslands depends on the type and health of the habitat. Unimproved, species-rich habitats can support a huge variety of grasses, wildflowers and other vegetation. They all provide food and shelter for the many different fauna species that can be found in grasslands.

Crested dog’s-tail (Cynosurus cristatus)

Grassland is dominated by grass cover and the species of grasses present can depend on factors such as soil type, altitude, level of agricultural improvement and maintenance routine. Crested dog’s-tail is found in many grassland habitats. It is a wiry, tufted grass that grows between 15–60 cm tall and is a traditional grazing grass. It is a common species that prefers lowland grassland and is the foodplant of many caterpillar species, such as the large skipper (Ochlodes sylvanus).

Quaking-grass (Briza media)

Another grass species is quaking-grass, with purple and green heart-shaped flower heads on delicate stems that appear to ‘quake’ or quiver in the breeze. Resembling miniature hops, this plant is also called totter grass, dithery dock, jiggle-joggles, earthquakes and toddling grass. The seeds of this species are a source of food for many bird species, such as yellowhammers and house sparrows.

Grasses are important foraging plants and their leaves and grain are eaten by a wide variety of species, such as small mammals, livestock, deer and many invertebrates. They also provide shelter and nesting materials, often used as the base or weaving material for many bird nests. Grasses can also help to stabilise the soil.

Cowslip (Primula veris)

There are thousands of wildflower species in grassland habitats, providing an important nectar and pollen source for many invertebrate species. Cowslip favours dry, calcareous grassland, but is also found in woodland, hedgerows and road verges. It flowers from April to May and its yellow, bell-shaped flowers are encased in a long, green tube-shaped calyx and grow in clusters. The flowers all face one side of the plant and have five petals, each with a small indent on the top edge. Cowslip is particularly important as it is an early food source for many pollinators.

Eyebright (Euphrasia sp.)

Another example of a wildflower species found in grassland habitats is eyebright. There are multiple eyebright species, including many hybrids, and identification in the field is often difficult. They’re semi-parasitic, feeding on the nutrients of the roots of nearby grasses. This can help control the spread of more aggressive grass species, allowing other wildflowers to grow.

For more examples of wildflowers, check out our guide to UK wild flower identification.

Fungi

Fungi form an important part of grassland habitats, playing a vital role by breaking down organic matter in the soil and facilitating the cycling of nutrients. They also food for many different species, including insects, mammals, gastropods like slugs and snails, nematodes, bacteria and even other fungi.

Scarlet waxcap (Hygrocybe coccinea)

Waxcaps are associated with unimproved grasslands that have a short sward and are nutrient-poor, moss-rich and long-established, and occur in both upland and lowland areas. Due to changes in agricultural practices, these habitats have been declining in Europe, and conservation efforts have been made to protect them. These waxcap grasslands are also home to other fungi species including agarics, clavarioid fungi and earthtongues.

Sometimes called the scarlet hood or righteous red waxy cap, the scarlet waxcap can be found across the Northern Hemisphere. They’re found in fields, open woodland, lawns and roadside but they prefer unimproved grassland, where no fertiliser, chemical treatment or ploughing has occurred.

White Spindles/Fairy Fingers (Clavaria fragilis)

This species is an upright fungus consisting of tubular, unbranched basidiocarps (the fruiting body). They are white with browning at the tips and are very fragile, with smooth, soft and somewhat brittle flesh. They also occur in waxcap grassland and other old, unimproved grasslands.

Shaggy Inkcap (Coprinus comatus)

This fungus, also known as lawyer’s wig, is very common in parklands, grasslands and lawns, with a tall, shaggy cap that begins white before turning browner and grey with age. The cap opens to a bell shape as the gills turn from white to pink and then black, dissolving from the base of the cap until it’s almost completely gone. This dissolving fruitbody breaks down into a black fluid that is full of fungal spores, aiding dispersal. This fluid was historically used as an ink substitute.

Fauna

Diverse grasslands can provide habitats for a wide variety of wildlife. There is a lot of cross over between grassland and farmland species, due to much agricultural land being improved grassland habitats. Grassland is home to several species of birds, such as ground-nesting species and birds of prey. They also support small mammals, reptiles and many grazing and browsing species, such as deer, rabbits and wild horses. They are also important habitats for a huge number of invertebrates, with wildflower-rich habitats supporting many pollinator species.

Common field grasshopper (Chorthippus brunneus)

This common and widespread species feeds on grasses and other plants. They prefer dry habitats and are found in grassland, heathland and agricultural areas, but tend to occur in higher densities in ungrazed areas. Many invertebrate species play important roles in grassland habitats, allowing air penetration and nutrient cycling in the soils and the breakdown of dead organic material. They are also prey for species such as birds, reptiles and some small mammals.

Marbled white (Melanargia galathea)

Butterflies are another group of invertebrates that are common in grassland habitats, particularly species-rich grasslands, due to the presence of many food plants and shelter provided by scattered scrub. Although some species can be found in multiple different grassland types, the habitat can sometimes be characterised by the presence of different butterfly and moth assemblages.

The marbled white is found in unimproved grassland with tall sward, as well as gardens, road verges and railway embankments, and is widespread in southern Britain. Its range has been expanding northwards and eastwards. Its caterpillars rely on red fescue (Festuca rubra) as a foodplant, as well as sheep’s fescue (F. ovina), Yorkshire-fog (Holcus lanatus) and tor-grass (Brachypodium pinnatum).

Bloody-nosed Beetle (Timarcha tenebricosa)

Beetles often make up a large percentage of invertebrate assemblages in grassland habitats. They play many important roles in grassland ecosystems, as plant feeders, prey, predators, parasites and scavengers, recycling nutrients from organic matter both into the soil and through the food chain. Bloody nosed beetles are black, flightless beetles that are often found in grasslands and coastal areas, particularly in the south and central UK. Their common name comes from their peculiar defence mechanism. They secrete foul-tasting, bright red hemolymph (a fluid analogous to blood) from their mouth when threatened.

Skylark (Alauda arvensis)

Many birds nest in grassland habitats, such as vulnerable wading birds (lapwing and curlew) and the skylark. A small bird, the skylark has a streaky brown plumage with a small crest. It is listed on the Birds of Conservation Concern 4 (BoCC 4) red list due to its recent population declines. These declines have been associated with agricultural intensification and the resultant reduction of grassland availability and suitability of farmland habitats for breeding and foraging. Birds such as the skylark use grassland as foraging grounds, feeding on seeds and insects. They are prey for other species such as birds of prey and foxes.

Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus)

Several predator species utilise grassland habitats, namely foxes, weasels, stoats and some birds of prey. A number of birds of prey use grasslands to hunt for small mammals and other prey species. Kestrels predate almost exclusively on small mammals, such as voles, shrews and mice. They also occasionally prey on birds, particularly fledglings during the early weeks of summer, as well as bats, lizards and some invertebrates.

Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus)

The UK has six deer species, although only two are native: red and roe deer. Fallow deer are thought to have been introduced by the Normans and the three other species, Reeves’ muntjac, Chinese water deer and sika, were introduced in the 19th and early 20th centuries. For more information on these species, check out our guide to UK deer identification.

Roe deer are small deer, with a reddish-brown colour during summer and a paler or black colouration in winter. They have a large white rump that becomes less obvious during the winter. Many grassland habitats are maintained by grazing and browsing, where species such as deer feed on the shoots of trees and scrub species that would otherwise encroach on the habitat. In many countries, deer populations are controlled by predators such as wolves, to help reduce the extent of their impact on grasslands. Other habitats are then able to develop, allowing the expansion of woodland, shrubland and heathland. The UK does not have any large predators anymore, however, therefore deer populations are managed through culling to prevent overgrazing.

For more information on other species that may occur in grassland habitats, including reptiles, moths, bumblebees and other mammal and bird species that may occur in grassland habitats, check out some of our other guides to UK species identification.

Threats

Species-rich grasslands are highly threatened habitats, as most grassland in the UK is improved or semi-improved. The main threats to grassland habitats are agricultural improvement and development. Ploughing, re-sowing, intensive grazing or mowing and heavy use of fertilisers can fundamentally change soil type and quality. This, along with clearing for development, reduces the quality and area of habitat, which would impact the number and range of flora and fauna they can support. Heavy recreational use can also impact grasslands, particularly fragile vegetation.

Another threat is encroachment from scrub and trees because of abandonment, incorrect or lax maintenance or intentional efforts to increase woodland cover. Woodland is often prioritised over grassland (that is not used for agriculture), as it is seen as more environmentally important, particularly in relation to carbon sequestration. The consequent fragmentation of grasslands is a threat in itself, as habitat patches that are too small or isolated may no longer be able to support viable populations of some species.

Areas of significance

Grassland can be found across the UK but there are some areas of significance such as the Culm grasslands and Rhôs pastures (purple moor grass and rush pastures), East Anglian Breckland and areas of the new forest (lowland dry acid grassland) and the Keen of Hamar in Shetland (calaminarian grassland).

Further reading and useful equipment

Guide to Grassland Plants 1

£3.75

Check out other Field Studies Council Fold-out Guides

 

 

Grassland Fungi: A Field Guide

£19.99 

 

 

 

Grassland Restoration and Management

£34.99

 

 

 

 

Opticron Hand Lens: 23mm 15x Magnification

£14.50 £16.50

Check out our guide to hand lenses and our full range.

 

Advanced Bug Hunting Kit

£59.99 £65.60

 

 

 

Q2 Quadrat

£15.50 

 

 

 

All prices correct at the time of this article’s publication.

Saltmarsh, the next habitat in our NHBS Introduction to Habitats series, is an area of the extreme upper shore of sheltered coasts that is inundated with seawater periodically during high tides. However, saltmarshes can also occur further inland, such as along tidal rivers. These habitats are usually angiosperm-dominated areas of vegetation that can develop on a variety of sediment types, including sand and mudflats. They often display striking vegetation zonation patterns across elevational gradients, relating to the degree or frequency of immersion in seawater. This means that, usually, more salt-tolerant species (halophytes) will be found lower down the shore on the seaward side, while less tolerant species would be more likely situated further up on the landward side. These zones  are broadly referred to as low marsh and high marsh, but can be further split into an initial intertidal sand- or mudflat, a pioneer zone, lower marsh, middle marsh and the upper marsh zone. These most tolerant species are usually the pioneer species, growing in mud- or sandflats – this marks the beginning of ecological succession in saltmarshes; these plants stabillise the substrate, and add oxygen and other nutrients to the saltmarsh, allowing other plants to establish.

This is a generally well-studied habitat, which is fully classified by the UK National Vegetation Classifications, with 26 types defined. Saltmarshes are made up of a network of creeks and pans (pools), creating sections of land and water. These creeks are developed by the growth of pioneer plant species that grow on raised areas. This concentrates any water flow into channels, which deepen to form creeks as the saltmarsh develops. These areas can be very productive habitats, as the muddy channels can contain sediment rich in decaying matter, supporting a wide diversity of species such as crabs, shrimps and snails, providing food for wading birds and other predators.

What species can you find here?

Flora

Saltmarsh grass (Puccinellia sp.)

Puccinellia, also known as saltgrass, is a genus of grass that grows in wet environments, often in saline conditions. Some of the saltmarsh grasses within this genus, such as common saltmarsh-grass (Puccinellia maritima), can dominate saltmarsh plant communities, creating dense tufts of hummocks. They can also often be found in pioneer communities, such as in recently disturbed or forming areas of saltmarsh. Some species can grow to quite a height, some between 60cm and 80cm, and provide a refuge for many different animal species.

Annual Sea-blite (Suaeda maritima)

This flowering plant, also known as herbaceous seepweed, is a yellow-green shrub with succulent leaves and green flowers. It grows in aquatic, terrestrial and wetland habitats, but is mainly found in salt marshes and along seashores, reaching up to about 35cm in height. It’s an important habitat-building species, as it captures mud and other sediment, and stabilises the saltmarsh.

Sea Aster (Aster tripolium)

Also known as Tripolium pannonicum, Aster pannonicus or seashore aster, this flowering plant is mainly confined to saltmarshes and estuaries, although it’s occasionally found on cliffs and inland salt works. Sea asters are a short-lived species that can form dense patches. They’re also known as Michaelmas daisies, as their late flowering period is between July and October. Thus, they’re an important source of nectar for several late butterfly species, such as the red admiral.

Sea purslane (Halimione portulacoides)

There are several different species with the common name sea purslane, but this species is a greyish-green shrub found in salt marshes and coastal dunes, usually flooded at high tide. They’re evergreen and contain important nutrients such as zinc and iron. This species can also be used as a bioindicator and biomonitor for mercury contamination in saltmarshes, as it accumulates in the roots and (at lower levels) in the leaves.

This species also has several botanical and common synonyms, including Obione portulacoides, Atriplex portulacoides, purslane orach and lesser shrubby orach.

Fauna

Saltmarshes are important breeding grounds for birds, such as waders and waterfowl, and feeding grounds for overwintering or migrant birds, including wheatear (Oenanthe oenanthe), redstart (Phoenicurus phoenicurus) and goldcrest (Regulus regulus). They also provide nursery sites for many fish species and support a large number of invertebrates.

Saltmarsh Plume (Agdistis bennetii)

The variety of habitats and conditions within saltmarshes supports a diverse range of invertebrates, including the saltmarsh plume moth.  This distinctive species is found in saltmarshes in the south and east of England, with its larvae feeding on species such as sea-lavender (Limonium vulgare) and rock sea-lavender (Limonium binervosum). They feed on the underside of the leaves, hibernating close to the base of the plant until it can restart feeding in spring. Invertebrate species can be used as indicator species for the level of grazing a saltmarsh has undergone. For example, Agdistis bennetii is an indicator species for ungrazed saltmarshes, as they show a significant preference for these areas and are, therefore, more likely to be found in higher numbers than in grazed areas. This is most likely due to the larvae’s reliance on only Limonium species as food plants, which may be reduced or removed with grazing.

Three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculaeatus)

The three-spined stickleback is a small predatory fish that inhabits fresh, salt and brackish water and is very tolerant of changes in salinity. With a preference for slow-moving water with areas of vegetation, it can often be found in ponds, lakes, ditches and marshes. These fish have a brown back with silverish sides and belly. As their name suggests, they have three spines on their back. Males develop bright green flanks and a red throat and belly during spring (as pictured). They hunt invertebrates, including worms, crustaceans, insect larvae and small snails. They’re also prey for several species, including larger fish, such as trout, pike and perch, and birds, such as herons and kingfishers. Eggs, fry and juveniles are also prey for macroinvertebrates, such as dragonfly naiads.

Shore crab (Carcinus maenas)

Shore crabs are found along all shores of Britain and Ireland and inhabit a wide variety of shoreline habitats, from the intertidal zome down to a depth of 60m. They’re especially abundant in salt marshes and estuaries, feeding on algae, plants, arthropods, annelids (worms), molluscs and carrion. They’re also prey for some predatory fish and birds, including gulls, cormorants and certain duck species. Herbivory by certain crab species is thought to be impacting saltmarshes in certain areas. For example, bank die-offs of cordgrass species (Spartina spp.) in the saltmarshes of Cape Cod, Massachusetts has been attributed to the native purple marsh crab (Sesarma reticulatum), as dense populations are leading to intense grazing. Other crabs, however, such as the tunnelling mud crab (Helice crassa) found in New Zealand, are thought to be ecosystem engineers, as their burrows help to transport dissolved oxygen into the surrounding anoxic sediments, helping to promote nitrogen cycling bacteria.

Ragworm (Hediste diversicolor)

Polychaete worms, also known as bristle worms, are a class of annelid worms that are generally found in marine environments. These species have pairs of fleshy protrusions on each segment of their body, resembling legs. Ragworms live in burrows and are widespread and common, often found in coastal or estuarine intertidal zones. They’re a key food source for many species of birds and fish, such as pied avocet (Recurvirostra avosetta), curlew (Numenius arquata), bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica), grey plover (Pluvialis squatarola), common sole (Solea solea) and European plaice (Pleuronectes platessa). These polychaetes have also been found to have deleterious effects on saltmarsh establishment, as well as seagrass meadows. This is thought to be due to ragworms pulling the leaves of cordgrass (Spartina anglica) into their burrows to feed while their burrowing activities is thought to reduce establishment rates due to its disturbance of the substrate.

Mud snail (Hydrobia ulvae)

This small, spiral-shelled snail is found along the British and Irish coastline. It is typically found in muddy sand, estuaries and saltmarshes, although it also occurs in lagoons and seagrass beds. Also referred to as Peringia ulvae or the laver spire shell, this species is most common in the upper half of the intertidal zone, feeding on detritus, microflora and seaweeds. They can be quite abundant across saltmarshes, therefore providing a major food source for multiple predators, including flatfish, such as common dab (Limanda limanda), and overwintering waterfowl, such as shelducks (Tadorna tadorna).

Overwintering birds

Saltmarshes are key habitats for many ducks, geese and waders, including the bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica). While some non-breeding individuals can be seen in the UK in summer, the highest numbers generally occur between November and February.  They use their long bills and legs to pick their way through estuaries, mudflats, sandy shores, saltmarshes and other wetland habitats, mainly eating worms, shellfish, marine snails and shrimps. For more information on the other birds that utilise these habitats, check out our identification guides on UK ducks, geese and waders.

Several mammal and reptile species also utilise saltmarshes, such as Sika deer, adders, otters and stoats. Check out our identification guides for UK Deer, Reptile and Mustelid species for more detailed information about these.

Threats

The main threats to multiple coastal habitats are erosion, pollution, climate change and development. Sea level rise, combined with development, can cause a coastal squeeze – where saltmarsh habitats are unable to ‘move’ in response to changing tide levels, therefore they’re ‘squeezed’ between the rising sea and developed areas, such as where coastal defences have been built. Many coastal habitats are low-lying and are therefore vulnerable to flooding and are where flood defences are most likely to be placed. Aside from contributing to the coastal squeeze, this changes the relationship between the land and the sea, impeding natural inundation and sediment supply and the dynamics necessary to maintain the saltmarsh habitats.

Erosion from wave action, adverse weather, disturbance, farming and grazing can lead to a reduction in stabilising plants and the rich substrate to be washed away. This reduces the habitats ability to support its diverse wildlife and reduces its suitability as a breeding ground for birds. However, carefully managed, low-intensity grazing can maintain saltmarshes, as it increases vegetation patchiness, reduces succession by woody species and, therefore, increases biodiversity.

Development, such as urban development, ports, harbours and land-claim for agriculture and industry, can threaten these habitats, although this is far less common now. Other threats include pollution, through run-off, litter, oil, heavy metals, air pollution and plastic pollution; invasive species, such as Spartina anglica (cordgrass), which can outcompete native plant species and dominate habitats; and overfishing, which can reduce top predators, leading to a collapse in saltmarsh ecosystems.

Hopes for the future

Protecting the remaining saltmarsh habitats, as well as restoring and creating new habitat areas, is an important part of conserving and increasing our biodiversity. Conservation often involves livestock grazing, site management, conservation designations, strict development planning policies, scientifically informed fishing quotas and public campaigns for litter picking, personal responsibility and reducing foot traffic on degraded areas. Restoration efforts usually focus on removing sea defences to restore the natural tidal influences such as inundation, removing invasive species and planting pioneer species to aid the return of natural saltmarsh communities. However, habitat restoration is a difficult and expensive process, and it can take many years to establish. They also may not always be successful, therefore the monitoring and study of saltmarshes are often a key part of restoration projects.

Areas of significance

Barnaby’s Sands and Burrows Marsh Nature Reserve, in Lancashire, which contains an extensive area of ungrazed saltmarsh.

Welwick Saltmarsh, East Riding of Yorkshire, is a sizable area of saltmarsh habitat on the bank of the River Humber, which hosts thousands of wading birds, as well as raptors and owls.

South Efford Marsh, a nature reserve in Devon, includes a patchwork of saltmarshes and grazing fields next to the River Avon.

Rye Harbour Nature Reserve, East Sussex, consists of a mosaic of coastal habitats including saltmarshes, shingle ridges, scrub and woodland.

Fingringhoe Wick, Essex, is a Site of Special Scientific Interest that hosts up to 200 species of birds and 350 species of flowering plants.

West Williamston, is a reserve in Wales made up of tidal creeks, saltmarsh, muddy shores, limestone rock outcrops and woodland. This site is frequented by a large number of waders and waterfowl, including little grebe, shelduck and curlew, as well as other birds such as tawny owl and wren.

Solway Firth is mostly tidal rivers, estuaries, mud and sand flats and lagoons, but there are also salt marshes, salt pastures and steppes. The saltmarshes of Solway Firth stretch along the coast of north Cumbria as well as crossing the border into Scotland. Over 70% of Scottish saltmarshes are within SSSIs.

Further reading and useful equipment

Guide to the Saltmarsh Plants of Britain

£3.75

 

 

 

Saltmarsh

£27.99 £34.99

 

 

 

The Saltmarsh Creation Handbook: A Project Manager’s Guide to the Creation of Saltmarsh and Intertidal Mudflat

£29.99

 

 

Singlet Loupe 10 x 21mm Hand Lens

£9.50

Check out our guide to hand lenses and our full range.

 

Opticron Explorer WA ED-R Binoculars

£239.00

Check out our full range.

 

 

All prices correct at the time of this article’s publication.

Woodland is the next habitat in our NHBS Introduction to Habitats series. Broadly, these habitats are land that is covered with trees, but the term woodland encompasses a diverse group of habitats that can be rich in wildlife. They are a key habitat for many invertebrates, plants, birds, mammals and other species groups. Woodlands are also incredibly useful habitats, for instance by providing flood protection by holding back water in the soil, sequestering carbon dioxide and reducing local temperatures. They also help reduce soil erosion and regulate weather patterns, such as local rainfall and temperature. Woodland may also be beneficial to our health, as it’s thought that spending time in forests decreases blood pressure, reduces stress levels and boosts your immune system. However, studies are still ongoing into the validity of these effects.

The types of woodland habitat include, but are not limited to, ancient, broadleaved, coniferous, mixed and wet woodland, as well as temperate rainforest, Caledonian forest, wood pastures and urban woodland. Each can have defining criteria such as plant types, soil moisture levels, humidity levels and age. There are also semi-natural and plantation woodlands, which are classified based on the percentage of planted trees. There are several indicator species used to determine the type of woodland habitats, such as the violet click beetle (Limoniscus violaceus), which rely exclusively on ancient decaying beech and ash trees. Several of these habitats are UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) Priority Habitats, which are a range of threatened semi-natural habitats that require conservation action.

What species can you find here?

Flora

While trees often define woodland, this is not the only type of flora in these habitats. Woodland habitats host 60% of all known vascular plant species. Wildflowers, grasses, sedges, ferns, mosses, fungi and lichen all occur in woodland habitats, although the species found varies depending on the abiotic and biotic conditions within the habitat.

Oak Tree (Quercus spp.)

Did you know that there are actually over 500 species of oak tree in the world? The dominant oak tree in the UK is the English oak (Quercus robur). The sessile oak (Quercus petraea) is the UK’s other native oak species, but there are many more non-native species here, such as the Turkey oak (Quercus cerris) and holm oak (Quercus ilex). Oak trees can be keystone species in many ecosystems, with one study finding that a single oak tree can host more than 2,300 organisms (data supplied by Natural Environment Research Council). Some of those don’t occur on any other tree species. Oak trees can also live to around 1,000 years old!

Wood Anemone (Anemone nemorosa)

The wood anemone is an ancient woodland indicator species as they are slow-growing and take a long time to fully establish. Therefore, large patches show that the habitat has been relatively undisturbed for a long time.

They are a spring species, often appearing with bluebells, another ancient woodland indicator. This species has a star-shaped white flower, that can have a pink tinge. It has distinctive yellow anthers in the middle.

 

Herb-Robert (Geranium robertianum)

A type of crane’s-bill, herb-robert is a low-growing plant with pink flowers and a reddish stem. It is widespread across the UK and prefers shaded habitats, such as woodland. This plant has many traditional uses, such as treating headaches, stomach aches and nosebleeds. It is an important nectar source and food plant for many invertebrates, such as bees and the barred carpet moth (Martania taeniata).

Fungi

Woodland, particularly habitats with a high amount of deadwood and leaf litter, can be key habitats for a wide variety of fungi species. These species break down dead organic matter and facilitate the recycling of carbon and nutrients back into the soil. They are also food for many species, including a number of invertebrate species, and are used as nesting material, for both birds and invertebrates.

Candlesnuff Fungus (Xylaria hypoxylon)

Also known as stag’s horn fungus and candlestick fungus, this species grows up to 6cm tall, with a black base, grey body and white tip that is often branched, resembling deer antlers. It is a common species within the UK and grows in groups on dead wood. It prefers broadleaf trees, often growing through moss.

Bird’s Nest Fungus (Crucibulum leave)

This woodland fungus is so named as it resembles a bird’s nest filled with a number of ‘eggs’. These eggs are actually periodoles, structures that contain the spores. A yellowish membrane initially covers the cup, before eventually rupturing to reveal the periodoles once they’ve developed. The energy of raindrops disperses them, allowing the fungus to spread.

For other fungi species you might find, check out our NHBS Guides to UK Fungi and Puffball Identification.

Fauna

Woodland ecosystems are often rich in fauna and can host 80% of all known amphibians, 75% of all birds and 68% of all mammal species. 

Willow Tit (Poecile montanus)

This species lives mostly in wet woodlands, feeding mainly on insects but also berries and seeds. Unusually for tit species, the willow tit digs into decaying wood to make nest holes. This is why older woodlands are so important for this species, as there is a higher abundance of decaying wood and trees. The willow tit is so similar to the marsh tit (Poecile palustris) that it wasn’t recognised as a separate species until 1897.

Small Pearl-Bordered Fritillary (Boloria selene)

Woodlands are home to thousands of invertebrate species in the UK. The small pearl-bordered fritillary is widespread across Scotland and Wales but is more limited in England. Like many other invertebrate species, they have suffered severe declines in numbers. Its bright orange and black markings make it a striking butterfly, quite easily seen against the green and brown woodland background.

European Badger (Meles meles)

This unmistakable creature is one of the most well known of Britain’s wildlife, with its iconic black-and-white striped face, grey body and black stomach. Did you know that a large amount of their diet is earthworms? They also prey upon hedgehogs, small mammals, other invertebrates, toads and frogs, and also eat fruit, such as plums and elderberries. This species is fully protected by the law but is still threatened by culls in certain areas, due to its association with bovine tuberculosis.

Eurasian Red Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris)

Another iconic British species that use woodland habitats is the red squirrel! This native species is far rarer than its non-native cousin, the grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis), due to being out-competed for food and habitat. Also, grey squirrels transmit a virus called squirrelpox, which has little effect on them but frequently kills red squirrels. Because of this, red squirrels are being pushed out of their normal habitat range. They now only occur in parts of Scotland, northern England and isolated areas such as Anglesey.

Scottish Wildcat (Felis silvestris silvestris)

This elusive species, also known as the ‘tiger of the Highlands’, may be functionally extinct in the wild, as the population is too small to be viable. Threats from persecution, habitat loss, interbreeding with feral and domestic cats, road collisions and disease mean that this species will not recover without serious conservation action. There are now captive breeding programmes in place and a record number of kittens were born in captivity in 2020, with plans for the first cats to be released back to the wild from 2022 onwards.

Threats

Britain is one of the least-wooded countries in Europe, with only 13% of our land covered in woods compared to Europe’s average of 44%. The main threat to woodland habitat is deforestation, often for development or agriculture. Population growth leads to an increased need for housing and infrastructure, particularly in urban areas, often at the expense of woodland. Natural woodland regeneration is not always possible, especially for ancient woodland, which takes hundreds of years to develop. Additionally, high deer populations, particularly in Scotland, are curbing much of the growth of young plants. This is a serious threat to woodland such as Caledonian forests and it is sometimes necessary to fence off areas to allow for new growth. For more information on deforestation, as well as the potential impacts of the COP26 summit, check out our blog: Climate Challenges: 4. Deforestation.

Reduced management also threatens woodland habitats. Traditional practices, such as coppicing, which involves cutting a tree to ground level to stimulate more growth, are now less common. This led to changes in woodland structures, reducing the diversity of growth, the amount of light that can enter the canopy and reducing habitat opportunities for animals. The lack of regularly felled trees or unwanted branches that used to rot down within the woodland reduces the availability of key habitats for invertebrates and small mammals.

Invasive and non-native species can also impact woodland habitats. For instance, new plantations of tree crops, which have replaced areas of native trees, are usually less suitable for native woodland species. Diseases and pests are also causing issues for UK woodland. For example, ash dieback is predicted to kill around 90% of ash trees in the UK, and Dutch elm disease has killed millions of elm trees over the last 40 years.

Further threats also include pollution, climate change and forest fires. For more information about this threat, check out our blog: Climate Challenges: 2. Forest Fires. With the combined pressures from many of these threats and without current and future conservation efforts and protection, the future could see the loss of these habitats as we know them.

Areas of significance in the UK

Galloway Forest, Scotland – UK’s largest forest
Kielder Forest, Northumberland – England’s largest forest
Grizedale, Cumbria
Forest of Dean, Gloucestershire
Savernake Forest, Wiltshire
Abbots Wood, Sussex
Banagher Glen, County Derry, Northern Ireland
Coed y Brenin, Snowdonia, Wales

Temperate rainforests examples: Taynish National Nature Reserve and the Caledonian Forest, Scotland.
Ancient woodland example: Wistman’s Wood, Devon.
Wet woodland example: Amberley Wild Brooks, West Sussex

Useful resources and further reading

Miyazaki, Y., et al. 2017. Shinrin-Yoku (Forest Bathing) and Nature Therapy: A State-of-the-Art Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(8): 1-48

Mitchell, R. J., et al. 2019. Oak-associated biodiversity in the UK (OakEcol). NERC Environmental Information Data Centre. https://doi.org/10.5285/22b3d41e-7c35-4c51-9e55-0f47bb845202

 

Forest Insects in Europe: Diversity, Functions and Importance
Beat Wermelinger
Paperback | £49.99

Read our interview with the author

 

 

Guide to Woodlands: Trees, Flowers & Fungi
Rebekah Trehern et al.
Unbound | £3.75

 

 

 

 

Guide to Ancient Woodland Indicator Plants
Alastair Hotchkiss et al. 
Unbound | £3.75

 

 

 

 

Habitats of the World: A Field Guide for Birders, Naturalists and Ecologists
Iain D Campbell et al. 
Flexibound | £27.99 

 

 

All prices correct at the time of this article’s publication.

The next habitat in our NHBS Introduction to Habitats series is farmland. Farmland encompasses a wide variety of different habitats, many of which can be rich in wildlife. Farmland itself is not defined under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan as a habitat, but it contains four habitat types that are identified: arable and horticulture, boundary and linear features, improved grassland and standing open water. These habitats are important for many plant species, as well as a variety of birds, mammals, amphibians and reptiles.

Farming has been a part of the UK landscape for thousands of years and methods are constantly changing as consumer tastes shift and new technological innovations emerge. With an estimated three-quarters of the UK being farmland, it is unsurprising that these habitats are used by so many species. It is also not surprising just how important environmentally friendly farming practices are.

The need to utilise as much of the land as possible to increase productivity has led to a rapid decline of boundary and linear features, such as stone walls and hedgerows. These features constitute a significant ecological part of the farmland habitat, providing variety, food and shelter for wildlife, as well as helping to reduce run-off, flooding and soil erosion. Hedgerows and tree lines can also play an important role in carbon sequestration in agricultural landscapes.

What species can you find here?

Flora

Beyond crop species, farmland can be home to a large number of flora species that can all play key roles in the ecosystem. These plants support the large variety of fauna species found on farmland. The abundance and diversity of plant species depends on the type of habitat and the level of ‘improvement’. Improved grasslands are areas that have been re-seeded and treated with chemicals, such as fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides, and typically species diversity is much lower compared to unimproved or semi-improved grasslands.

Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa)

A common hedgerow species, blackthorn flowers in early spring and produces fruits in autumn and winter, providing an important food source for many species, including invertebrates and birds. It is visually similar to several other species, such as wild plum and wild cherry, but can be distinguished by its fruit size, leaf shape and the time of year that the flowers bloom.

Common Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna)

Hawthorn is another common hedgerow species, providing food and shelter for species such as yellowhammers (Emberiza citrinella) and the hawthorn moth (Scythropia crataegella). The red berries, called haws, develop during autumn and winter, and are an important source of food during the colder months for many farmland species. Did you know that hawthorn was originally associated with May Day? It was used before the development of the Maypole, with its leaves and flowers used in garlands.

White Clover (Trifolium repens)

This plant is often used as a companion plant for crops, providing additional ground cover to reduce soil erosion. White clover also fixes nitrogen within the soil, allowing for better crop growth. Clover suppresses the growth of unwanted or damaging plants too, and also acts as a trap for pests to draw them away from valuable crop plants. This practice helps to improve farmland for wildlife as it prevents it from becoming a monoculture, adding more variety in food and shelter resources. The use of cover crops within agriculture has reduced, however, and white clover is much less abundant on farmland than it once was.

Creeping Thistle (Cirsium arvense)

The creeping thistle is an important source of food for many farmland birds, such as goldfinches and linnets, but it’s often considered a ‘weed’ and is normally quite heavily managed on agricultural land. Its flower heads consist of lilac-pink florets on a cylinder of spiny leaf-like structures called bracts. During the late summer, it releases fluffy, wind-borne seeds en masse.

Fauna

Many iconic UK species use farmland and the fauna present changes depending on the time of year. Farmland can seem to come alive during spring and summer, although there is still much to see during the colder months.

Grey Partridge (Perdix perdix)

This species is an iconic part of farmland wildlife, with its orange face, dark black semi-circle patch on its abdomen and stripy grey and orange-brown feathers. The grey partridge relies on the seeds, leaves and certain invertebrate species that it finds in open farmland and has a preference for areas with hedges. It is a ground-nesting bird, laying the most number of eggs per clutch of any bird (the record is 25).

Grey partridge numbers have declined by more than 80% in the UK since the 1980s. This has mostly been attributed to a loss of seed sources, habitat loss and predation, for example by cats and foxes. Luckily there are several conservation efforts in place to help this species.

Yellowhammer (Emberiza citrinella)

These brightly coloured birds prefer open countryside with bushes and hedgerows, and so they are often found in farmland habitats. Yellowhammers feed on invertebrates and seeds, relying on farmland seeds during the winter as snow cover can make it difficult to find food elsewhere.

Heart and Dart Moth (Agrotis exclamationis)

Farmland habitats are home to a great many invertebrate species, with a large variety of butterflies and moths. The heart and dart is an easily identifiable moth due to its distinctive markings. It has a blackish v-shaped collar, with a dark dart mark and two circular marks on its wings. The wing colour can vary from lightish grey to a much darker brown. They feed on a variety of plants such as brambles (Rubus spp.), maize (Zea spp.) and lettuce (Lactuca spp.).

Brown Hare (Lepus europaeus)

While not a true native to the UK, as they were thought to have been introduced during Roman times, this species is now considered naturalised. It prefers a mixture of grassland, arable fields and hedgerows, grazing on vegetation and the bark of young, woody plants. Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) can also be seen on farmland, although they can be distinguished quite easily as hares are much larger, with longer limbs and longer, black-tipped ears.

Farmland can also support many of the UK’s small mammal species. For more information on those, check out our NHBS Guide to UK Small Mammal Identification.

Threats

Intensification of agricultural practices has led to a reduction in habitat areas that are seen as unproductive, such as hedgerows, rough grassland and open water areas. It has been reported that 60% of farmland species are now in decline. As well as agricultural intensification, other factors behind this decline include changes in farming practices; the use of harmful chemicals, such as insecticides; overgrazing by livestock; destruction of habitats and soil erosion.

Habitat changes caused by development, afforestation or conservation efforts that prioritise alternative habitat types can also pose a threat to farmland. As can changes in management, or a lack thereof; the abandonment of farmland can lead to encroachment by scrubs and trees. While scrubland can be an important habitat for many wildlife species, it is not necessarily suitable for all farmland species, such as ground-nesting birds that prefer open habitats. This could lead to a change in community structure and may even lead to localised extinction of vulnerable species that rely on farmland and cannot survive in other habitats. Changes in land use through development can also impact in a similar way. Furthermore, if the land was originally woodland or wetland, for example, there may be a push to restore it to its previous habitat type, which may not be suitable for the species previously inhabiting the farmland area.

Farmland habitats also face climate change-related challenges. Changes in precipitation, increased extreme weather and increased temperatures can lead to soil degradation, reduced plant growth and changes in the availability of food, shelter and fresh water for wildlife. These factors can also impact crop production, and where this results in reduced yields, this increases the need for agricultural intensification to meet demands, further impacting the farmland ecosystem.

Hopes for the future

A change in the way farmers receive subsidies may signal a shift away from a rather bleak picture for these habitats. Previously, farmers were paid grants based on how much land they owned and farmed. This encouraged them to use as much of their land for productivity as possible. Now, however, farmers will be paid for more sustainable practices instead. Under the Sustainable Farming Incentive, grants will be rewarded for restoration of non-crop habitats, the provision of resources for farmland species year-round and reducing the use of harmful pesticides.

Useful resources and further reading

Farming and Birds
Ian Newton
Hardback | £32.50 £34.99

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Farmland Conservation: Evidence for the effects of interventions in northern and western Europe
Lynn V Dicks et al
Paperback | £34.99

 

 

The Shepherd’s Life: A Tale of the Lake District
James Rebanks
Paperback | £9.99

 

 

All prices correct at the time of this article’s publication.

The next habitat we will be exploring in our Introduction to Habitats series is urban and suburban habitats. These are extremely diverse, from parks, gardens, cemeteries and bare ground to highrises, bridges, landfills and houses. Due to this wide diversity, urban habitats are often extremely fragmented, with small, isolated patches surrounded by unsuitable areas. These patches are also often highly disturbed, by light, people, pets, cars and other anthropogenic activities. Some species also have to deal with reduced availability of food, due to the limited plant life, and fewer nesting and breeding spaces. Much of the surfaces in the urban environment have been altered, covered in concrete, roofing tiles, and tarmac. This changes the amount of rainwater that can infiltrate the soils underneath, as well as how much heat from the sun is absorbed. The temperatures can be higher in urban areas, particularly when there is little to no tree coverage to provide shade.

To survive in an urban environment, species must be adaptable. Many studies have found key behavioural and physical differences between urban and rural dwellers of the same species. For example, birds have been found to sing higher, longer and louder in cities than in the countryside. Generalist species are more likely to be able to exploit these habitats as they can occupy wider ecological niches. Specialist species can have more restricted diets or need more specific conditions to develop or reproduce, making them less able to adapt to changing environments. Those able to transition from natural to man-made habitats, however, may actually see large fitness benefits, due to fewer predators and, for some species, abundant food supplies.

Gardens and public green spaces can often be a refuge for many urban species, providing food, shelter and protection from other disturbances. But overly manicured gardens and parks do not provide the resources necessary for many species to survive. Wildflowers, hedges, shrubs, trees and other native vegetation are needed to boost insect numbers, along with limiting the use of harmful herbicides and pesticides. Many other species rely on insects for food, and so increasing insect populations benefits other species throughout the food web.

What species can you find here?

Flora:

Cow Parsley (Anthriscus sylvestris)

This species is a member of the carrot family and is commonly found on verges, hedgerows and less intensively-managed green spaces, with a preference for shaded habitats. It is a fast-growing plant, that appears in the summer before dying back, and its white flowers are clustered together in an umbrella-like shape. They are a great food resource for many invertebrate species, as well as for rabbits. There are several similar-looking plants, including the poisonous hemlock (Conium maculatum), although hemlock has distinctive purple blotches on its stem.

Three-cornered Garlic (Allium triquetrum)

This is an invasive species, often found along verges, roadside banks, hedgerows and on waste ground. It can form dense colonies and are spread naturally by ants. Its white flowers have a green stripe on each petal and a garlic/oniony smell. They are edible, tasting similarly to spring onion or chives.

Common Chickweed (Stellaria media)

This plant has multiple common names, including chickenwort, maruns, craches and winterweed. They form large mats and are found in many gardens and fields. It has one line of fine hairs on its stem, with oval leaves and small white flowers. Chickweed was used in folk medicine as a remedy for pulmonary disease and several itchy skin conditions. It is even prescribed today by modern herbalists for many other conditions, although not all these uses are supported by scientific evidence.

English Ivy (Hedera helix)

This is a climbing plant that can often be found on walls, buildings, trees and other man-made and natural structures. It is an evergreen species that can also grow as groundcover when there are no vertical surfaces. The flowers are a greenish-yellow colour and the fruits, which ripen in late winter, can vary in colour from purple-black to orangy-yellow. They are an important food source for many insects and birds, particularly in autumn and winter, and their foliage is also browsed by deer.

Fauna:

Feral Pigeon (Columba livia domestica)

There are several species of pigeon in our urban areas. Feral pigeons, also known as city or street pigeons, are descended from the domestic pigeon, a subspecies derived from the rock dove (Columba livia). They have substituted their natural habitats of sea cliffs with ledges on buildings and other man-made structures. They have a wide variety of colours and patterns compared to the rock dove, but urban pigeons tend to have a darker plumage compared to individuals in rural areas.

Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes)

An iconic urban species, the red fox is one of our largest land predators. Usually living in groups or pairs, they feed mainly on small mammals and birds, but also amphibians and fruit. In urban areas, they are very successful scavengers, helped occasionally by people who leave food out for them. They are more common in less dense suburban areas but have been found right in city centres. It is thought that the movement between urban and rural fox populations is quite fluid.

European Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus)

Another iconic British species, the hedgehog has seen severe population declines, though true population estimates are difficult, due to the lack of data and their elusive nature. In the 1950s, population estimates put the number of hedgehogs in the UK at 36.5 million (although this is not thought to be accurate), which is now thought to have dropped to 1.55 million by 1995. It is believed that populations are still declining, but there are still no reliable methods for estimating the true numbers. They face several threats, including habitat loss, chemical use in gardens, cars and a drop in invertebrate populations.

Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus)

This bird of prey is not only the fastest bird in the world, but also the fastest member of the animal kingdom, clocking up a dive speed of over 320km/h. Their populations suffered after decades of persecution and pesticide use, but their numbers have begun to recover. They nest in tall buildings, bridges and pylons, and prey mainly on pigeons but also collared doves, blackbirds and starlings.

Garden Snail (Cornu aspersum)

A wide variety of invertebrates can be found in urban and suburban habitats, particularly gardens and parks. The garden snail is a common visitor to our lawns, plants and vegetable patches. They’re often considered a pest due to the damage they cause to leaves and fruits but they play a vital role in the health of our soils. They help decompose plant matter, allowing for the cycling of nutrients back into the soil. Snails are also an important food and calcium source for many animals, such as birds.

Urban and suburban environments are also home to many garden bird species, as well as bats, butterflies, moths and spiders. For more information on these, check out some of our guides to UK species identification.

Threats

Urban and suburban areas are becoming more and more densely inhabited as more of the UK’s population moved into towns and cities. This increases the levels of disturbance, from more cars on the road, more noise, light, waste, pets and people. Higher disturbances decrease the ability of species to survive, as they are less likely to feed, develop and reproduce successfully. It can also increase the likelihood of direct mortality.

With a rising human population is an increasing need for more housing and infrastructure. Consequently, this reduces the amount of undeveloped and semi-natural areas; fewer green spaces and the over maintenance of gardens and parks are serious threats to biodiversity in urban habitats.

Public opinion can also threaten urban wildlife. Many species that have managed to colonise the urban environment are considered pests and there are often calls to eradicate them. Fox culls are a controversial suggestion, with many people wanting a way to control the populations and reduce the damage they cause, while others are concerned with animal rights. Additionally, there are suggestions that culls are ineffective, as removed foxes are often replaced by another individual, with no change made to urban population numbers.

What can you do to help?

There are several simple steps you can take to help improve urban biodiversity. You could plant more native plants, reduce the chemicals you use and decrease how often you mow your lawn. Placing bird feeders, nests, and other shelters are also ways that can help wildlife. On a bigger scale, you can urge your local council and government to help too. They could increase the areas of green space and tree cover, and manage roadside verges with nature in mind. Another important step is to decrease light and noise pollution. With some simple steps, we can help to increase the suitability of urban habitats for many wildlife species.

In our new NHBS Introduction to Habitats series, we will be exploring the various habitats found in the UK. In this article, we will take a look at the first habitat of the series, heathland and moorland. Featuring prominently in famous novels such as Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë and The Return of the Native by Thomas Hardy, heathland is a unique habitat. Originally manmade, it is a product of agricultural grazing and tree clearing practices originating thousands of years ago. Unlike the heathland in countries such as Australia and South Africa, European heathland is relatively low in flora species variety. It is characterised by heather species (Family Ericaceae), but also other plant species such as gorse (Ulex spp.) and bracken (Pteridium spp.).

As this habitat is manmade, it requires management to be maintained. This usually involves a variety of methods such as using grazing animals, removing older species and trees, and controlling the encroachment of scrub. They can even be managed by controlled burning. If neglected, the heathland would be overtaken by successive species and become woodland.

There are several different types of heathland, depending on physical factors such as soil drainage, terrain, and altitude. These types include lowland, chalk, and wooded heath. Lowland heath can be further divided into wet, dry, and humid heath, and upland heath is more commonly known as moorland. The types of species found can vary between these habitats.

What species can you find here?

Flora:

While there may not be a large variety of flora, the species present all play important roles within the habitat. There are also some iconic species within the heathland.

Bell Heather (Erica cinerea)

Between June and September, bell heather blooms across the heathland, creating a blanket of purple. This species is an important nectar source for many invertebrate species, such as the buff-tailed bumblebee (Bombus terrestris) and the silver-studded blue butterfly (Plebejus argus).

It is similar to another heather species, cross-leaved heath, but the flowers of the bell heather are smaller and occur around the stem, rather than clustered on one side.

Common Gorse (Ulex europaeus)

Flowering from January to June, this bright yellow plant provides an early source of food for many invertebrates. As a large evergreen shrub, it also provides shelter for many species, including Dartford warblers (Curruca undata) and linnets (Linaria cannabina).

Common gorse is also very similar to two other gorse species, western (Ulex gallii) and dwarf (Ulex minor). The easiest way to identify the species is by the time of year that they flower and their height, as common gorse grows much taller and can reach up to 2.5 metres.

Common Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum)

The UK’s most common fern species, it grows in dense groups on heathland and moorland. A bright green during spring and summer months, this species dies back in winter, creating a sea of brown fronds. Bracken is poisonous to grazing livestock, therefore it needs to be cut back to maintain heathland habitats. If left to grow, it can dominate the habitat and out-compete other plant species, such as bell heather, for nutrients, light, and water.

Heath Bedstraw (Galium saxatile)

Heath bedstraw is a mat-forming herb found in heathland habitats. It is a fairly common species, found widespread across most of the UK. The white petalled flowers bloom between June and August. This species is a key food source for Britain’s only true alpine butterfly species: the small mountain ringlet (Erebia epiphron).

Key identifying features of heath bedstraw are its square, hairless stem and its white, four-petal flowers that give off a sickly, unpleasant smell.

Fauna:

Heathland supports a large variety of species, particularly invertebrates, but also birds, mammals and reptiles. Several rare species present here are hardly found in any other habitat.

Silver-Studded Blue Butterfly (Plebejus argus)

This species is found mainly in heathland, chalk grassland, and sand dune habitats, and is almost entirely restricted to southern England. It is a rare species, with the adults appearing between July to September.

This species is sexually dimorphic, meaning the males and females look different. The males (pictured) are blue with a darker border, while the females are brown with red spots along their border. Both have the pale fringe to their wings.

Golden-Ringed Dragonfly (Cordulegaster boltonii)

This species, found in heathland, freshwater, and wetland habitats, is easy to identify, due to its distinctive yellow and black markings. Their larvae are aquatic, and so rely on streams or standing water within the heathland to breed. While voracious predators in their own right, they are also an important food source, along with other dragonfly species, for many nesting birds such as the hobby (Falco subbuteo).

Dartford Warbler (Silvia undata)

The Dartford warbler suffered a population crash in the 1960s but has since begun recovering. It is a ground-nesting bird, living on lowland heath and relies on gorse for a protective covering. Within the UK, this species is also mostly restricted to southern England. However, there are populations of this species within western Europe, particularly within the Iberian peninsula.

Stoat (Mustela erminea)

The stoat, also known as the short-tailed weasel or Eurasian ermine, is a small member of the mustelid family, related to otters (Lutra lutra) and the very visually similar weasel (Mustela nivalis). While stoats are slightly larger, the key to discerning this species from the weasel is the tail – stoats have a longer tail with a black tip.

Heathland can also support all six UK reptile species and several of our amphibian species. For more information on those, be sure to check out our NHBS Guide to UK Amphibian Identification and to UK Reptile Identification.

Heathland threats:

Lack of management is one of the main threats that heathland faces. This habitat needs variety, for example, dry heath, wetter areas such as bogs and ponds, patches of older vegetation, and areas of bare, sandy ground. This all improves the biodiversity of the area and helps to strengthen the ecosystem. Without management, these areas could all be taken over by scrub and tree cover.

Clearing for urban development, ploughing, and quarrying also threaten this habitat, and are some of the main causes of heathland loss over the last few decades. Further threats include the expansion and planting of forests, overgrazing, and uncontrolled fire.

More than 80% of heathland in the UK has been lost during the past 150 years, but widespread conservation efforts hope to reverse this. The UK Biodiversity Action Plan, for example, aims to restore 58,000 hectares of heathland, with further plans to recreate 6,000 hectares.

Areas of significance:

Upland heathland or moorland:
– Exmoor, Dartmoor, and Bodmin Moor
– Pennines
– Brecon Beacons
– Other areas such as Yorkshire, Northumberland, Greater Manchester, and the Peak District.

Lowland heathland
– The New Forest
– Ashdown Forest
– South Purbeck Heaths
– Other areas such as Cornwall, Devon, Surrey, and Pembrokeshire

Please note this is not an exhaustive list.