River pollution is a significant issue in the UK; many rivers are contaminated with sewage, agricultural and road run-off, microplastics and litter. One council is now attempting to protect one river from this by looking to grant it the ‘Freedom of the City’, usually granted to people and organisations to recognise their contributions to a city. Norwich City Council hopes that this honorary title, in combination with other new measures, such as developing planning policies to protect biodiversity, will protect River Wensum from pollution and invasive species. The council will also be asking Anglian Water for evidence on what is being done to prevent sewage spills.
A new leafhopper has been discovered on a student field trip to Kibale National Park, in west Uganda. Dr Alvin Helden of Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge named the insect Phlogis kibalensis and said it’s from an “incredibly rare” group of leafhoppers, whose “biology remains almost completely unknown”. The last recorded sighting of a species from the Phlogis genus was in the Central African Republic more than 50 years ago, in 1969.
After the devastating bushfires between 2019 and 2020, some koala populations in Australia were on the brink of extinction. Now, the Australian federal government has committed a further $50 million for the next four years to aid koala population recovery, bringing the total federal investment to $74 million since 2019. This funding will also go towards habitat and health protection projects and extending the national koala monitoring program.
A new species of angel shark (Squatina mapama) has been identified in the Central American Caribbean. Angel sharks are flat-bodied, bottom-dwelling species that resemble stingrays. The species was identified through genetic analysis, as it’s a cryptic shark species: they’re morphologically indistinguishable from one or more other Squatina species. S. mapama, whose suggested common name is the ‘small-crested angel shark’, is the fourth new Squatina species to be identified in the last decade.
Foulness Point saltmarsh by Jeremy Halls via Flickr
Saltmarsh, the next habitat in our NHBS Introduction to Habitats series, is an area of the extreme upper shore of sheltered coasts that is inundated with seawater periodically during high tides. However, saltmarshes can also occur further inland, such as along tidal rivers. These habitats are usually angiosperm-dominated areas of vegetation that can develop on a variety of sediment types, including sand and mudflats. They often display striking vegetation zonation patterns across elevational gradients, relating to the degree or frequency of immersion in seawater. This means that, usually, more salt-tolerant species (halophytes) will be found lower down the shore on the seaward side, while less tolerant species would be more likely situated further up on the landward side. These zones are broadly referred to as low marsh and high marsh, but can be further split into an initial intertidal sand- or mudflat, a pioneer zone, lower marsh, middle marsh and the upper marsh zone. These most tolerant species are usually the pioneer species, growing in mud- or sandflats – this marks the beginning of ecological succession in saltmarshes; these plants stabillise the substrate, and add oxygen and other nutrients to the saltmarsh, allowing other plants to establish.
This is a generally well-studied habitat, which is fully classified by the UK National Vegetation Classifications, with 26 types defined. Saltmarshes are made up of a network of creeks and pans (pools), creating sections of land and water. These creeks are developed by the growth of pioneer plant species that grow on raised areas. This concentrates any water flow into channels, which deepen to form creeks as the saltmarsh develops. These areas can be very productive habitats, as the muddy channels can contain sediment rich in decaying matter, supporting a wide diversity of species such as crabs, shrimps and snails, providing food for wading birds and other predators.
What species can you find here?
Flora
Saltmarsh grass (Puccinellia sp.)
Reflexed Saltmarsh-grass – Puccinellia distans subsp. distans by Gertjan van Noord via Flickr
Puccinellia, also known as saltgrass, is a genus of grass that grows in wet environments, often in saline conditions. Some of the saltmarsh grasses within this genus, such as common saltmarsh-grass (Puccinellia maritima), can dominate saltmarsh plant communities, creating dense tufts of hummocks. They can also often be found in pioneer communities, such as in recently disturbed or forming areas of saltmarsh. Some species can grow to quite a height, some between 60cm and 80cm, and provide a refuge for many different animal species.
This flowering plant, also known as herbaceous seepweed, is a yellow-green shrub with succulent leaves and green flowers. It grows in aquatic, terrestrial and wetland habitats, but is mainly found in salt marshes and along seashores, reaching up to about 35cm in height. It’s an important habitat-building species, as it captures mud and other sediment, and stabilises the saltmarsh.
Also known as Tripolium pannonicum, Aster pannonicus or seashore aster, this flowering plant is mainly confined to saltmarshes and estuaries, although it’s occasionally found on cliffs and inland salt works. Sea asters are a short-lived species that can form dense patches. They’re also known as Michaelmas daisies, as their late flowering period is between July and October. Thus, they’re an important source of nectar for several late butterfly species, such as the red admiral.
There are several different species with the common name sea purslane, but this species is a greyish-green shrub found in salt marshes and coastal dunes, usually flooded at high tide. They’re evergreen and contain important nutrients such as zinc and iron. This species can also be used as a bioindicator and biomonitor for mercury contamination in saltmarshes, as it accumulates in the roots and (at lower levels) in the leaves.
This species also has several botanical and common synonyms, including Obione portulacoides, Atriplex portulacoides, purslane orach and lesser shrubby orach.
Fauna
Saltmarshes are important breeding grounds for birds, such as waders and waterfowl, and feeding grounds for overwintering or migrant birds, including wheatear (Oenanthe oenanthe), redstart (Phoenicurus phoenicurus) and goldcrest (Regulus regulus). They also provide nursery sites for many fish species and support a large number of invertebrates.
The variety of habitats and conditions within saltmarshes supports a diverse range of invertebrates, including the saltmarsh plume moth. This distinctive species is found in saltmarshes in the south and east of England, with its larvae feeding on species such as sea-lavender (Limonium vulgare) and rock sea-lavender (Limonium binervosum). They feed on the underside of the leaves, hibernating close to the base of the plant until it can restart feeding in spring. Invertebrate species can be used as indicator species for the level of grazing a saltmarsh has undergone. For example, Agdistis bennetii is an indicator species for ungrazed saltmarshes, as they show a significant preference for these areas and are, therefore, more likely to be found in higher numbers than in grazed areas. This is most likely due to the larvae’s reliance on only Limonium species as food plants, which may be reduced or removed with grazing.
Three-spined stickleback by Gilles San Martin via Flickr
The three-spined stickleback is a small predatory fish that inhabits fresh, salt and brackish water and is very tolerant of changes in salinity. With a preference for slow-moving water with areas of vegetation, it can often be found in ponds, lakes, ditches and marshes. These fish have a brown back with silverish sides and belly. As their name suggests, they have three spines on their back. Males develop bright green flanks and a red throat and belly during spring (as pictured). They hunt invertebrates, including worms, crustaceans, insect larvae and small snails. They’re also prey for several species, including larger fish, such as trout, pike and perch, and birds, such as herons and kingfishers. Eggs, fry and juveniles are also prey for macroinvertebrates, such as dragonfly naiads.
Shore crabs are found along all shores of Britain and Ireland and inhabit a wide variety of shoreline habitats, from the intertidal zome down to a depth of 60m. They’re especially abundant in salt marshes and estuaries, feeding on algae, plants, arthropods, annelids (worms), molluscs and carrion. They’re also prey for some predatory fish and birds, including gulls, cormorants and certain duck species. Herbivory by certain crab species is thought to be impacting saltmarshes in certain areas. For example, bank die-offs of cordgrass species (Spartina spp.) in the saltmarshes of Cape Cod, Massachusetts has been attributed to the native purple marsh crab (Sesarma reticulatum), as dense populations are leading to intense grazing. Other crabs, however, such as the tunnelling mud crab (Helice crassa) found in New Zealand, are thought to be ecosystem engineers, as their burrows help to transport dissolved oxygen into the surrounding anoxic sediments, helping to promote nitrogen cycling bacteria.
Ragworm (Hediste diversicolor)
Ragworm by Dr Mary Gillham Archive Project via Flickr
Polychaete worms, also known as bristle worms, are a class of annelid worms that are generally found in marine environments. These species have pairs of fleshy protrusions on each segment of their body, resembling legs. Ragworms live in burrows and are widespread and common, often found in coastal or estuarine intertidal zones. They’re a key food source for many species of birds and fish, such as pied avocet (Recurvirostra avosetta), curlew (Numenius arquata), bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica), grey plover (Pluvialis squatarola), common sole (Solea solea) and European plaice (Pleuronectes platessa). These polychaetes have also been found to have deleterious effects on saltmarsh establishment, as well as seagrass meadows. This is thought to be due to ragworms pulling the leaves of cordgrass (Spartina anglica) into their burrows to feed while their burrowing activities is thought to reduce establishment rates due to its disturbance of the substrate.
This small, spiral-shelled snail is found along the British and Irish coastline. It is typically found in muddy sand, estuaries and saltmarshes, although it also occurs in lagoons and seagrass beds. Also referred to as Peringia ulvae or the laver spire shell, this species is most common in the upper half of the intertidal zone, feeding on detritus, microflora and seaweeds. They can be quite abundant across saltmarshes, therefore providing a major food source for multiple predators, including flatfish, such as common dab (Limanda limanda), and overwintering waterfowl, such as shelducks (Tadorna tadorna).
Overwintering birds
Bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica) by Laurie Boyle via Flickr
Saltmarshes are key habitats for many ducks, geese and waders, including the bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica). While some non-breeding individuals can be seen in the UK in summer, the highest numbers generally occur between November and February. They use their long bills and legs to pick their way through estuaries, mudflats, sandy shores, saltmarshes and other wetland habitats, mainly eating worms, shellfish, marine snails and shrimps. For more information on the other birds that utilise these habitats, check out our identification guides on UK ducks, geese and waders.
Several mammal and reptile species also utilise saltmarshes, such as Sika deer, adders, otters and stoats. Check out our identification guides for UK Deer, Reptile and Mustelid species for more detailed information about these.
Threats
The main threats to multiple coastal habitats are erosion, pollution, climate change and development. Sea level rise, combined with development, can cause a coastal squeeze – where saltmarsh habitats are unable to ‘move’ in response to changing tide levels, therefore they’re ‘squeezed’ between the rising sea and developed areas, such as where coastal defences have been built. Many coastal habitats are low-lying and are therefore vulnerable to flooding and are where flood defences are most likely to be placed. Aside from contributing to the coastal squeeze, this changes the relationship between the land and the sea, impeding natural inundation and sediment supply and the dynamics necessary to maintain the saltmarsh habitats.
Erosion from wave action, adverse weather, disturbance, farming and grazing can lead to a reduction in stabilising plants and the rich substrate to be washed away. This reduces the habitats ability to support its diverse wildlife and reduces its suitability as a breeding ground for birds. However, carefully managed, low-intensity grazing can maintain saltmarshes, as it increases vegetation patchiness, reduces succession by woody species and, therefore, increases biodiversity.
Development, such as urban development, ports, harbours and land-claim for agriculture and industry, can threaten these habitats, although this is far less common now. Other threats include pollution, through run-off, litter, oil, heavy metals, air pollution and plastic pollution; invasive species, such as Spartina anglica (cordgrass), which can outcompete native plant species and dominate habitats; and overfishing, which can reduce top predators, leading to a collapse in saltmarsh ecosystems.
Hopes for the future
Protecting the remaining saltmarsh habitats, as well as restoring and creating new habitat areas, is an important part of conserving and increasing our biodiversity. Conservation often involves livestock grazing, site management, conservation designations, strict development planning policies, scientifically informed fishing quotas and public campaigns for litter picking, personal responsibility and reducing foot traffic on degraded areas. Restoration efforts usually focus on removing sea defences to restore the natural tidal influences such as inundation, removing invasive species and planting pioneer species to aid the return of natural saltmarsh communities. However, habitat restoration is a difficult and expensive process, and it can take many years to establish. They also may not always be successful, therefore the monitoring and study of saltmarshes are often a key part of restoration projects.
Areas of significance
Barnaby’s Sands and Burrows Marsh Nature Reserve, in Lancashire, which contains an extensive area of ungrazed saltmarsh.
Welwick Saltmarsh, East Riding of Yorkshire, is a sizable area of saltmarsh habitat on the bank of the River Humber, which hosts thousands of wading birds, as well as raptors and owls.
South Efford Marsh, a nature reserve in Devon, includes a patchwork of saltmarshes and grazing fields next to the River Avon.
Rye Harbour Nature Reserve, East Sussex, consists of a mosaic of coastal habitats including saltmarshes, shingle ridges, scrub and woodland.
Fingringhoe Wick, Essex, is a Site of Special Scientific Interest that hosts up to 200 species of birds and 350 species of flowering plants.
West Williamston, is a reserve in Wales made up of tidal creeks, saltmarsh, muddy shores, limestone rock outcrops and woodland. This site is frequented by a large number of waders and waterfowl, including little grebe, shelduck and curlew, as well as other birds such as tawny owl and wren.
Solway Firth is mostly tidal rivers, estuaries, mud and sand flats and lagoons, but there are also salt marshes, salt pastures and steppes. The saltmarshes of Solway Firth stretch along the coast of north Cumbria as well as crossing the border into Scotland. Over 70% of Scottish saltmarshes are within SSSIs.
Loss of animal biodiversity is impacting the survivability of some plants. Species that rely on animal-facilitated dispersal are unable to keep up with climate change as they cannot disperse their seeds far enough to shift their geographic ranges, due to the decline in biodiversity of birds and mammals. Published in Science, a new study has shown that 60% fewer seeds are being dispersed far enough to reach newly suitable habitats, with North America, Europe, South America and Australia the most affected.
Norway has blown up a dam that blocked the Tromsa River for more than 100 years to free up migratory routes for fish. The dam has not been used for over 50 years and the river, which feeds into Norway’s biggest lake, will allow fish in the area to thrive, including grayling, Alpine bullhead and common minnows. Prior to this, the fish were only able to live and spawn in 950 metres of the river. Now that the dam has been removed, these species will be able to swim 10km upriver.
A new study suggests that the sixth mass extinction is currently underway. The planet has undergone five major extinction events but, according to the study published in Biological Reviews, the current one is entirely caused by human activities. Since the year 1500, between 7.5% and 13% of 2 million known species could have already been lost, with drastically increasing rates of species extinctions and declining abundances. However, a bias towards evaluating birds and mammals and an under-reporting of other fauna such as invertebrates may be leading to many denials that the current rate of species die-offs amounts to a mass extinction.
Edward O. Wilson 1929–2021 and Thomas Lovejoy 1941–2021
We have recently received the sad news of the passing of Edward O. Wilson, a biologist, naturalist and Pulitzer Prize-winning author, who died aged 92 and Thomas Lovejoy, a leading extinction researcher and conservation biologist who popularised the term ‘biological diversity’, who died at age 80. These two pioneering conservationists were instrumental in establishing the field of conservation biology and continued to contribute to conservation and research throughout their long careers.
Edward O. Wilson began his interest in natural history from an early age, undertaking his first expeditions at age 9 around the Rock Creek Park in Washington, DC. He earned his BS and MS degrees in biology at the University of Alabama before transferring to Harvard University to complete his PhD.
Wilson was referred to by some as the ‘father of biodiversity’ and ‘a modern Charles Darwin’, praised for his influence as a theorist and observer. He began his career as an ant taxonomist between 1956 and 1996, working to understand their microevolutions and developing the theory of a ‘taxon cycle’. While appointed to the Harvard Society of Fellows, he spent many years travelling, embarking on several overseas expeditions to research and collect ant species in Cuba, Mexico, Australia, Fiji and Sri Lanka, amongst other places. Wilson has been credited with the discovery and description of more than 400 species of ants. Later in life, he led a number of scientific expeditions to Mozambique, the southwest Pacific and the archipelagos of Vanuatu.
Wilson was also an accomplished author, publishing many titles including On Human Nature (1979), which won him his first Pulitzer Prize; The Ants (1990), for which he won his second Pulitzer Prize; his autobiography Naturalist (1994); The Diversity of Life (2012); Letters to a Young Scientist (2014); and his most recent book, Tales from the Ant World (2021). Wilson also played a key role in the launch of the Encyclopedia of Life (EOL) initiative, which aimed to create a global database on all scientifically recognised species.
He was also known for his campaigning, arguing that humans have a moral duty to value species for not only their own sake, but also for future human generations. His work in extinction research informed much of his activism, leading to his advocating for forest protection and the setting aside of 50% of the earth’s surface for wildlife to thrive in, known as the Half-Earth concept. During his long career, Wilson was awarded a number of scientific and conservation honours, including the National Medal of Science (1977), the ECI Prize (1987), the International Prize for Biology (1993), Carl Sagan Award for Public Understanding of Science (1994), the Nierenberg Prize (2001) and the Kew International Medal (2014), as well as being recognised as one of Time Magazine‘s 25 Most Influential People in America in 1995.
E. O. Wilson, 16th October 2007 by Sage Ross via Flickr
Edward O. Wilson: 10th June 1929–26th December 2021
Thomas Lovejoy introduced the term ‘biological diversity’ to the scientific community in the 1980s, as well as helping to establish the concept and study of conservation biology, by convening ‘The First International Conference on Research in Conservation Biology’ with a group of other leading conservationists in 1978.
Referred to by some as the ‘godfather of biodiversity’, Lovejoy’s interest in nature and biology began when he attended Millbrook School and worked at The Trevor Zoo in the 1950s. From there, he worked for many years in the Amazon of Brazil, later founding the Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project (BDFFP) in Brazil in 1979 and later co-founding the Amazon Biodiversity Center in 2018. He worked to understand the impacts of forest fragmentation, leading the Minimum Critical Size of Ecosystems project in the Amazon and calling for the protection of tropical forests.
Lovejoy served on a number of science and environmental councils under presidents Reagan, Bush and Clinton and as Science Envoy for the Obama and Biden administrations. Through his work in the field of extinction research, he discovered that human-caused habitat destruction, pollution and climate change were threatening species around the world and predicted in the 1980s that 10–20% of all species would be extinct by the year 2020. This work won him the Blue Planet Prize in 2012, for being the first scientist to academically clarify how humans are causing habitat fragmentation and driving the biodiversity crisis.
Lovejoy also developed debt-for-nature swaps, where a part of a nation’s foreign debt can be forgiven in exchange for investments in environmental conservation measures, such as setting aside land as a nature preserve that would be off-limits to development. Throughout his career, Lovejoy authored many articles and books, while also providing forewords for numerous others. He helped to found the long-running TV series NATURE, a show that has educated and inspired the public about wildlife for over 40 years.
Thomas Lovejoy, environmental science and policy professor at George Mason University, speaks on the panel at Deforestation in the Amazon: Drivers and Policy Solutions. Image by Inter-American Dialogue via Flickr
Thomas Lovejoy: 22nd August 1941–25th December 2021
Chester Zoo helps reintroduce ‘extinct fish’ to Mexico. The tequila fish (Zoogoneticus tequila) is a small species of goodied fish that disappeared from the wild in 2003 due to water pollution and the introduction of invasive fish species. A team of conservationists from Chester Zoo and the Michoacana University of Mexico have returned over 1500 fish to a number of springs in the Teuchitlán River in south-west Mexico, with the fish now thriving and breeding in the river. This project is hoped to have created a blueprint for future reintroductions of other endangered fish species.
Baby hellbender salamanders hatch at the St. Louis Zoo in Missouri, with hopes of restoring this species in the wild. The population of this species in Missouri has declined by over 75% since the 1980s, as they’re sensitive to environmental changes caused by climate change, pollution, disease and habitat modification. Chytridiomycosis, the deadly amphibian disease linked to massive worldwide amphibian die-offs, has also been detected in Missouri hellbenders. These captive-bred eggs will be carefully monitored and the hatchlings will be released into the wild when they are two years old.
19 bird species have been added to Nepal’s list of nationally threatened birds in the past decade. As of 2018, this list consists of 168 birds, with aquatic species making up 49 of these. The nationwide count of aquatic birds is taking place between 1st and 16th January, and will show the latest condition of the threatened bird species in Nepal. This increasing number of threatened species is thought to be due to a number of issues, including shrinking forest cover and wetlands, habitat destruction, chemical poisoning, land fragmentation, climate change and hunting.
In the forthcoming Winter 2021 issue of Conservation Land Management (CLM) magazine Jenny Price and Lyndsay Wayman-Rook describe how the Old Chalk New Downs project in Kent has been trialling biodegradable cardboard tree guards as an alternative to plastic. Here you can read a summary of the article.
The main purpose of a tree guard is to protect newly planted trees from browsing, but they also provide other benefits; they create a more favourable microclimate that helps to promote the growth of young trees and protect the plants from wind, competing vegetation, herbicides and water loss. Wooden and wire tree guards have been in use since the 1820s, but it wasn’t until the 1980s that plastic versions were first used. As a cheaper material compared to alternatives, plastic is now widely used for guards in planting schemes.
It has been predicted that between 1980 and 2020 over 200 million plastic tree guards were used, and with the UK government’s ambitious target to increase woodland cover by 19% by 2050, the rate of tree planting is sure to increase, as will the number of tree guards used. It is recommended that plastic tree guards are removed 2–3 years after their installation, but they are often left behind to degrade in the landscape, which can be both damaging to the wider environment (although the impacts of this are not yet fully understood) and to the tree itself. It is possible to recycle plastic polymer guards, but not if they have already started to break down or are contaminated.
Cardboard tree guards offer a viable alternative to plastic. Lyndsay Wayman-Rook and Hannah Simmons
The Old Chalk New Downs project, hosted by Kent County Council and funded by the National Lottery Heritage Fund, has been exploring alternative options to plastic tree guards. It first compared the costs of different materials, including plastic, cardboard and biodegradable plastic, and looked at the pros and cons for each guard type. For instance, one of the advantages of a cardboard guard is that it does not need to be removed after installation, but it may deteriorate a lot faster than other guard types, especially in particularly wet areas.
Biodegradable tree guard options Lyndsay Wayman-Rook
It was decided that cardboard guards would be used for this particular project, owing to their no-plastic design and availability. Between autumn 2019 and spring 2021, more than 9,000 trees with cardboard guards were planted across seven hedgerows at three different sites. How these fared was closely monitored, and the success rate of planting was high. One key aspect of this project was to gather feedback from landowners and contractors involved in sourcing and using the cardboard guards, and overall the comments were positive.
In the full article Jenny Price and Lyndsay Wayman-Rook discuss how the cost of tree guards made from plastic, biodegradable plastic and cardboard compare, and provide an in-depth overview of how cardboard guards performed when used for hedge planting, both in this project and in examples from elsewhere. They also include a summary of the feedback received from landowners and contractors, and clearly describe the advantages and disadvantages of different tree guard options.
Plastic tree guards are commonly used in planting schemes. Lyndsay Wayman-Rook
Other articles featured in the Winter 2021 issue include:
RSPB Nigg Bay: Scotland’s first coastal realignment
Helping to make and document conservation decisions: the Evidence-to-Decision tool
The Stage Zero approach – lessons from North America on restoring river, wetland and floodplain habitats
Viewpoint: Plant fewer, better: good tree and shrub establishment
In this and every issue you can expect to see Briefing, keeping you up to date with the latest training courses, events and publications, and On the ground which provides helpful tips or updates on products relevant to land management. Other features that regularly appear in CLM include Viewpoint, a similar length to our main articles, but here authors can voice their own views on various conservation issues, and Review, which can include letters from readers or updates from our authors.
CLM is published four times a year in March, June, September and December, and is available by subscription only, delivered straight to your door. Subscriptions start from £22 per year. Previous back issues are also available to purchase individually (subject to availability). Current subscribers can expect to receive their copy of the Winter 2021 issue in the next couple of weeks.
If you are involved in a conservation project and think your experiences could be useful to other practitioners, we would love to hear from you. If you are interested in writing for CLM feel free to contact us – we will be happy to discuss your ideas with you.
Woodland is the next habitat in our NHBS Introduction to Habitats series. Broadly, these habitats are land that is covered with trees, but the term woodland encompasses a diverse group of habitats that can be rich in wildlife. They are a key habitat for many invertebrates, plants, birds, mammals and other species groups. Woodlands are also incredibly useful habitats, for instance by providing flood protection by holding back water in the soil, sequestering carbon dioxide and reducing local temperatures. They also help reduce soil erosion and regulate weather patterns, such as local rainfall and temperature. Woodland may also be beneficial to our health, as it’s thought that spending time in forests decreases blood pressure, reduces stress levels and boosts your immune system. However, studies are still ongoing into the validity of these effects.
The types of woodland habitat include, but are not limited to, ancient, broadleaved, coniferous, mixed and wet woodland, as well as temperate rainforest, Caledonian forest, wood pastures and urban woodland. Each can have defining criteria such as plant types, soil moisture levels, humidity levels and age. There are also semi-natural and plantation woodlands, which are classified based on the percentage of planted trees. There are several indicator species used to determine the type of woodland habitats, such as the violet click beetle (Limoniscus violaceus), which rely exclusively on ancient decaying beech and ash trees. Several of these habitats are UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) Priority Habitats, which are a range of threatened semi-natural habitats that require conservation action.
What species can you find here?
Flora
While trees often define woodland, this is not the only type of flora in these habitats. Woodland habitats host 60% of all known vascular plant species. Wildflowers, grasses, sedges, ferns, mosses, fungi and lichen all occur in woodland habitats, although the species found varies depending on the abiotic and biotic conditions within the habitat.
Oak Tree (Quercus spp.)
Oak tree by Dr. Hans-Günter Wagner and leaves by Peter Stenzel via Flickr
Did you know that there are actually over 500 species of oak tree in the world? The dominant oak tree in the UK is the English oak (Quercus robur). The sessile oak (Quercus petraea) is the UK’s other native oak species, but there are many more non-native species here, such as the Turkey oak (Quercus cerris) and holm oak (Quercus ilex). Oak trees can be keystone species in many ecosystems, with one study finding that a single oak tree can host more than 2,300 organisms (data supplied by Natural Environment Research Council). Some of those don’t occur on any other tree species. Oak trees can also live to around 1,000 years old!
The wood anemone is an ancient woodland indicator species as they are slow-growing and take a long time to fully establish. Therefore, large patches show that the habitat has been relatively undisturbed for a long time.
They are a spring species, often appearing with bluebells, another ancient woodland indicator. This species has a star-shaped white flower, that can have a pink tinge. It has distinctive yellow anthers in the middle.
A type of crane’s-bill, herb-robert is a low-growing plant with pink flowers and a reddish stem. It is widespread across the UK and prefers shaded habitats, such as woodland. This plant has many traditional uses, such as treating headaches, stomach aches and nosebleeds. It is an important nectar source and food plant for many invertebrates, such as bees and the barred carpet moth (Martania taeniata).
Fungi
Woodland, particularly habitats with a high amount of deadwood and leaf litter, can be key habitats for a wide variety of fungi species. These species break down dead organic matter and facilitate the recycling of carbon and nutrients back into the soil. They are also food for many species, including a number of invertebrate species, and are used as nesting material, for both birds and invertebrates.
Also known as stag’s horn fungus and candlestick fungus, this species grows up to 6cm tall, with a black base, grey body and white tip that is often branched, resembling deer antlers. It is a common species within the UK and grows in groups on dead wood. It prefers broadleaf trees, often growing through moss.
Bird’s Nest Fungus (Crucibulum leave)
Bird’s Nest Fungus by Sven Gaedtke via Flickr (cropped)
This woodland fungus is so named as it resembles a bird’s nest filled with a number of ‘eggs’. These eggs are actually periodoles, structures that contain the spores. A yellowish membrane initially covers the cup, before eventually rupturing to reveal the periodoles once they’ve developed. The energy of raindrops disperses them, allowing the fungus to spread.
This species lives mostly in wet woodlands, feeding mainly on insects but also berries and seeds. Unusually for tit species, the willow tit digs into decaying wood to make nest holes. This is why older woodlands are so important for this species, as there is a higher abundance of decaying wood and trees. The willow tit is so similar to the marsh tit (Poecile palustris) that it wasn’t recognised as a separate species until 1897.
Small Pearl-Bordered Fritillary (Boloria selene)
Small Pearl-Bordered Fritillary by Janet Graham via Flickr
Woodlands are home to thousands of invertebrate species in the UK. The small pearl-bordered fritillary is widespread across Scotland and Wales but is more limited in England. Like many other invertebrate species, they have suffered severe declines in numbers. Its bright orange and black markings make it a striking butterfly, quite easily seen against the green and brown woodland background.
This unmistakable creature is one of the most well known of Britain’s wildlife, with its iconic black-and-white striped face, grey body and black stomach. Did you know that a large amount of their diet is earthworms? They also prey upon hedgehogs, small mammals, other invertebrates, toads and frogs, and also eat fruit, such as plums and elderberries. This species is fully protected by the law but is still threatened by culls in certain areas, due to its association with bovine tuberculosis.
Another iconic British species that use woodland habitats is the red squirrel! This native species is far rarer than its non-native cousin, the grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis), due to being out-competed for food and habitat. Also, grey squirrels transmit a virus called squirrelpox, which has little effect on them but frequently kills red squirrels. Because of this, red squirrels are being pushed out of their normal habitat range. They now only occur in parts of Scotland, northern England and isolated areas such as Anglesey.
This elusive species, also known as the ‘tiger of the Highlands’, may be functionally extinct in the wild, as the population is too small to be viable. Threats from persecution, habitat loss, interbreeding with feral and domestic cats, road collisions and disease mean that this species will not recover without serious conservation action. There are now captive breeding programmes in place and a record number of kittens were born in captivity in 2020, with plans for the first cats to be released back to the wild from 2022 onwards.
Threats
Britain is one of the least-wooded countries in Europe, with only 13% of our land covered in woods compared to Europe’s average of 44%. The main threat to woodland habitat is deforestation, often for development or agriculture. Population growth leads to an increased need for housing and infrastructure, particularly in urban areas, often at the expense of woodland. Natural woodland regeneration is not always possible, especially for ancient woodland, which takes hundreds of years to develop. Additionally, high deer populations, particularly in Scotland, are curbing much of the growth of young plants. This is a serious threat to woodland such as Caledonian forests and it is sometimes necessary to fence off areas to allow for new growth. For more information on deforestation, as well as the potential impacts of the COP26 summit, check out our blog: Climate Challenges: 4. Deforestation.
Reduced management also threatens woodland habitats. Traditional practices, such as coppicing, which involves cutting a tree to ground level to stimulate more growth, are now less common. This led to changes in woodland structures, reducing the diversity of growth, the amount of light that can enter the canopy and reducing habitat opportunities for animals. The lack of regularly felled trees or unwanted branches that used to rot down within the woodland reduces the availability of key habitats for invertebrates and small mammals.
Invasive and non-native species can also impact woodland habitats. For instance, new plantations of tree crops, which have replaced areas of native trees, are usually less suitable for native woodland species. Diseases and pests are also causing issues for UK woodland. For example, ash dieback is predicted to kill around 90% of ash trees in the UK, and Dutch elm disease has killed millions of elm trees over the last 40 years.
Further threats also include pollution, climate change and forest fires. For more information about this threat, check out our blog: Climate Challenges: 2. Forest Fires. With the combined pressures from many of these threats and without current and future conservation efforts and protection, the future could see the loss of these habitats as we know them.
Areas of significance in the UK
Galloway Forest, Scotland – UK’s largest forest
Kielder Forest, Northumberland – England’s largest forest
Grizedale, Cumbria
Forest of Dean, Gloucestershire
Savernake Forest, Wiltshire
Abbots Wood, Sussex
Banagher Glen, County Derry, Northern Ireland
Coed y Brenin, Snowdonia, Wales
Temperate rainforests examples: Taynish National Nature Reserve and the Caledonian Forest, Scotland. Ancient woodland example: Wistman’s Wood, Devon. Wet woodland example: Amberley Wild Brooks, West Sussex
Useful resources and further reading
Miyazaki, Y., et al. 2017. Shinrin-Yoku (Forest Bathing) and Nature Therapy: A State-of-the-Art Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(8): 1-48
The Bat Conservation Trust’s annual National Bat Conference, held online via Zoom from 29th–31st October, covered many aspects of bat conservation through a wide variety of activities and talks, including monitoring, surveying and development. We are extremely pleased to have sponsored this event and we were lucky enough to have been able to attend many of these sessions, including talks by Professor Tigga Kingston from Texas Tech University on the human dimensions of bat conservation, and Thomas Foxley, University of the West of England, who spoke about the role of landscape features in spatial activity patterns of greater horseshoe bats. We also attended a few of the amazing workshops that took place, such as Shirley Thompson’s gardening for bats.
Bat Conservation Trust update
Bat Conservation Trust also shared an update on their current and future work. Bats make up more than a quarter of all mammal species in the UK, but sadly, these species face many threats. Habitat loss and fragmentation, decreasing food resources, chemical use, disturbance to roosts and threats from cats have all led to a dramatic decline in bat populations over the last century. Diseases, wind farms, flypaper, artificial lighting and the presence and construction of roads also negatively impact.
Lesser horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus hipposideros) bats roosting by Jessicajil via Flickr
Currently, Bat Conservation Trust supports a number of local bat groups, working with volunteers, scientists, industry and government on a range of projects. They focus on discovering more about bats, taking action to protect them, inspiring people to care about bats and strengthening their work by improving relevant skills and knowledge. Their programmes include a National Bat Monitoring Programme, education and engagement, the National Bat Helpline, Landscapes for Bats, and science and research.
During this update, Bat Conservation Trust spoke of the many ways they will be increasing their efforts to help bat populations, for example by increasing the spread of their monitoring programs and organising a petition regarding key amendments to the Environment Bill, including legally binding targets for wildlife recovery. Through new acoustic and monitoring approaches, they also aim to improve their evidence base and Bat Conservation Trust are also working towards improving their engagement with policymakers, the public and the media. Their Bat in Churches project has also been expanded to include training on bat care basics, surveying a church, the best architectural practices for bats and cleaning workshops.
One key scheme they are developing is the Bat Roost Tree Tag Scheme where recognisable tags are placed on trees that contain bat roosts. The aim of this is to make sure all trees that have been surveyed and found to contain bat roosts are easily identifiable. When woodland managers and workers see a tag on a tree, they will know to seek advice before proceeding with work. This will also give a significantly increased level of protection for ancient trees, which are vitally important for a large number of species.
Future events and how to get involved
The National Bat Conference was a very interesting and educational event, and it was wonderful to see such a wide range of knowledge and skillsets being shared through the many talks, activities and workshops throughout the weekend. If you missed out this time or would like to attend further events, the Bat Conservation Trust has a number of future events planned, including Spring into Action, Midlands Bat Conference and the East of England Bat Conference. More information about these and other events can be found on the Bat Conservation Trust website.
There are a number of ways you can help to support Bat Conservation Trust, such as by becoming a member or donating. You can also contact your local bat group, fundraise for bats or volunteer for their various projects. However you choose to get involved, you can make a real difference to the future of bats in the UK.
The Lancashire Peatland Initiative, run by the Lancashire Wildlife Trust, has delivered habitat restoration across over 200 hectares of degraded lowland raised bog. These habitats are peatland ecosystems that develop primarily in areas less than 150m above sea level, particularly in cool, humid regions. These deep bodies of peat can be raised several metres higher than the surrounding land and are much wetter, usually covered in typical bog vegetation, such as cotton grass, sphagnum moss and heather.
This pioneering initiative has spanned the past three decades, with active restoration activities on numerous sites, including Little Woolden Moss, Winmarleigh Moss SSSI and Astley Moss SSSI SAC. The Trust’s tireless efforts, in collaboration with Natural England and other partners, has ultimately halted the decline of these nationally significant sites and species, resulting in an expansion of active raised bog habitats.
The Lancashire Peatland Initiative won the NHBS sponsored Best Practice Award for Large Scale Nature Conservation at the 2021 CIEEM Awards. Project Manager Sarah Johnson has kindly taken the time to answer a few questions for us.
Could you tell us about the Lancashire Peatland Initiative and how it started?
The Lancashire Peatland Initiative was born out of a desire to bring together and co-ordinate all of the peatland restoration work happening in Lancashire, Manchester and North Merseyside, raising awareness of the importance of these amazing habitats, and ensuring their protection in the future.
In 2019 we were delighted to be awarded funding from the Esmeé Fairbairn Foundation to create and support the Lancashire Peatland Initiative. This allowed us to fund Project Officers, Assistant Project Officers, communications support, and myself as Lancashire Peatland Initiative Project Manager, to work across all of the Wildlife Trust for Lancashire, Manchester and North Merseyside’s peatland nature reserves in the area. We also co-ordinate the Lancashire Peat Partnership and the Northern Lowland Peatland Coalition, and work closely with the Great North Bog Coalition and the Great Manchester Wetlands Partnership, bringing together partners and other organisations who are involved in our peatlands.
This allows the Lancashire Peatland Initiative to work on our own peatland restoration projects, but also support those of our partners and develop new projects across areas of commonality and innovation.
Digger creating a bog pool at Little Woolden Moss. Image by Lancashire Wildlife Trust
How did these habitats become so degraded and what are the main threats they are currently facing?
Our peatlands face threats from all directions. Historically peatlands have been seen as wastelands that needed to be tamed by humans before they could be exploited, either for conversion to agricultural land or for the extraction of the peat. Deep ditches were dug to drain the water from the peat, destroying these fragile ecosystems.
Unfortunately, many of these same threats are still faced by our peatlands today. Drainage and conversion to agriculture, overgrazing, rotational burning and extraction of peat for use in the horticultural industry has left only 13% of England’s peatlands in a near-natural state.
Public opinion is often integral in the success of large restoration projects such as this; how have you found local reception of peatland restoration? Are people generally supportive?
Peatlands are not always at the top of people’s agendas, so we are working hard to get the message out there about the importance of our peatlands, not only to provide a habitat for lots of amazing plants and animals but also in our fight against climate change, as natural flood mitigators, water filters and protection against wildfires.
However, we have found that once people know about these fantastic ecosystems they really support our work to restore and care for them. Of course, there are some issues still to fully answer, such as the need to protect both peat and our food supplies, so much of which is grown or grazed on drained peatland. But we have found that as the plight of our peatlands enters more people’s consciousnesses, they are more willing to work with us to find solutions.
Little Woolden Moss bog pool. Image by Lancashire Wildlife Trust
The sale of peat compost to gardeners is to be banned from 2024; how do you think this will affect peatland degradation and restoration? Are there any other policies you think are needed to protect these habitats?
A ban on domestic sales of peat compost is a fantastic step towards protecting our peatlands. But so much more still needs to be done. Large amounts of peat are still being used in commercial horticulture, growing the plants that are for sale in your local garden centre, and this is an issue that is yet to be addressed. Another really damaging practice is the growing of lawn turf on drained peatlands, one of the highest carbon dioxide emitting uses of peat that not many people are aware of.
However, we do need to be careful that we are not simply exporting the issue elsewhere to areas of lower regulation. For example, Ireland recently announced an end to its peat extraction, but just a few months later there were reports of millions of tonnes of peat being imported into the country from one of the Baltic states.
We also really need policy support for the movement towards more environmentally sensitive management of land on peat-based soils. For example, the adoption of paludiculture or higher water table agriculture (wet farming) and land management could have a huge impact on CO2e emissions from our peatlands, but until these practices can be shown to be financially viable how can we expect landowners to take up these changes? This is an area where public subsidies and financial incentives could make a real difference.
There also needs to be an immediate end to all peatland burning, as the current legislation is riddled with loopholes.
Species reintroductions began in 2018; how are the species chosen for reintroduction? What are the criteria for determining whether an area has recovered enough to support these reintroduced species?
Species reintroductions are one of my favourite parts of my job! Currently, we are focusing on reintroducing species lost from Greater Manchester, and so a working group from the Great Manchester Wetlands Partnership comes together to appraise which species would be suitable for reintroduction. However, this can only happen after years of habitat restoration to create the right conditions for these returned species to thrive.
A recent success story was the reintroduction of the large heath butterfly. Locally known as the Manchester argus, the destruction of its peatland habitat drove it into local extinction almost 150 years ago. However, by following strict IUCN guidelines and working closely with Natural England and Chester Zoo, we were able to reintroduce the species to Astley Moss in the summer of 2020. Since then we have had the privilege of seeing the first native population flying on the moss this summer.
Sphagnum and Cotton Grass plugs – Winmarleigh
With the current COP26 summit, what are your hopes for the future of the Lancashire Peatland Initiative and the restoration of these habitats?
We have really high hopes for the future of our peatlands. It seems clear to anyone in the know that we need to be prioritising the recovery of these habitats as they can provide us with quick, massive wins in terms of carbon reductions. For example, at our pioneering carbon farm we have already seen a 90% reduction in CO2e emissions from the site, compared to an adjacent area of drained peatland that has been converted to agricultural pasture. This has been achieved in just over a year by simply re-wetting the land, and give us another year or two to fully re-vegetate the site and we expect it to become a functioning carbon sink.
What we are really hoping to see out of COP26 is a commitment to ambitious peatland restoration targets, that are backed up by both the policy and the funding to actually achieve this. In the words of Greta, we need action now – not more ‘blah, blah, blah’!
You can find out more about the Lancashire Peatland Initiative from the Lancashire Wildlife Trust website and by following them on Facebook and Twitter.
The next habitat in our NHBS Introduction to Habitats series is farmland. Farmland encompasses a wide variety of different habitats, many of which can be rich in wildlife. Farmland itself is not defined under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan as a habitat, but it contains four habitat types that are identified: arable and horticulture, boundary and linear features, improved grassland and standing open water. These habitats are important for many plant species, as well as a variety of birds, mammals, amphibians and reptiles.
Farming has been a part of the UK landscape for thousands of years and methods are constantly changing as consumer tastes shift and new technological innovations emerge. With an estimated three-quarters of the UK being farmland, it is unsurprising that these habitats are used by so many species. It is also not surprising just how important environmentally friendly farming practices are.
The need to utilise as much of the land as possible to increase productivity has led to a rapid decline of boundary and linear features, such as stone walls and hedgerows. These features constitute a significant ecological part of the farmland habitat, providing variety, food and shelter for wildlife, as well as helping to reduce run-off, flooding and soil erosion. Hedgerows and tree lines can also play an important role in carbon sequestration in agricultural landscapes.
What species can you find here?
Flora
Beyond crop species, farmland can be home to a large number of flora species that can all play key roles in the ecosystem. These plants support the large variety of fauna species found on farmland. The abundance and diversity of plant species depends on the type of habitat and the level of ‘improvement’. Improved grasslands are areas that have been re-seeded and treated with chemicals, such as fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides, and typically species diversity is much lower compared to unimproved or semi-improved grasslands.
A common hedgerow species, blackthorn flowers in early spring and produces fruits in autumn and winter, providing an important food source for many species, including invertebrates and birds. It is visually similar to several other species, such as wild plum and wild cherry, but can be distinguished by its fruit size, leaf shape and the time of year that the flowers bloom.
Hawthorn is another common hedgerow species, providing food and shelter for species such as yellowhammers (Emberiza citrinella) and the hawthorn moth (Scythropiacrataegella). The red berries, called haws, develop during autumn and winter, and are an important source of food during the colder months for many farmland species. Did you know that hawthorn was originally associated with May Day? It was used before the development of the Maypole, with its leaves and flowers used in garlands.
This plant is often used as a companion plant for crops, providing additional ground cover to reduce soil erosion. White clover also fixes nitrogen within the soil, allowing for better crop growth. Clover suppresses the growth of unwanted or damaging plants too, and also acts as a trap for pests to draw them away from valuable crop plants. This practice helps to improve farmland for wildlife as it prevents it from becoming a monoculture, adding more variety in food and shelter resources. The use of cover crops within agriculture has reduced, however, and white clover is much less abundant on farmland than it once was.
The creeping thistle is an important source of food for many farmland birds, such as goldfinches and linnets, but it’s often considered a ‘weed’ and is normally quite heavily managed on agricultural land. Its flower heads consist of lilac-pink florets on a cylinder of spiny leaf-like structures called bracts. During the late summer, it releases fluffy, wind-borne seeds en masse.
Fauna
Many iconic UK species use farmland and the fauna present changes depending on the time of year. Farmland can seem to come alive during spring and summer, although there is still much to see during the colder months.
Grey Partridge (Perdix perdix)
Grey partridge by Ekaterina Chernetsova (Papchinskaya) via Flickr
This species is an iconic part of farmland wildlife, with its orange face, dark black semi-circle patch on its abdomen and stripy grey and orange-brown feathers. The grey partridge relies on the seeds, leaves and certain invertebrate species that it finds in open farmland and has a preference for areas with hedges. It is a ground-nesting bird, laying the most number of eggs per clutch of any bird (the record is 25).
Grey partridge numbers have declined by more than 80% in the UK since the 1980s. This has mostly been attributed to a loss of seed sources, habitat loss and predation, for example by cats and foxes. Luckily there are several conservation efforts in place to help this species.
These brightly coloured birds prefer open countryside with bushes and hedgerows, and so they are often found in farmland habitats. Yellowhammers feed on invertebrates and seeds, relying on farmland seeds during the winter as snow cover can make it difficult to find food elsewhere.
Farmland habitats are home to a great many invertebrate species, with a large variety of butterflies and moths. The heart and dart is an easily identifiable moth due to its distinctive markings. It has a blackish v-shaped collar, with a dark dart mark and two circular marks on its wings. The wing colour can vary from lightish grey to a much darker brown. They feed on a variety of plants such as brambles (Rubus spp.), maize (Zea spp.) and lettuce (Lactuca spp.).
While not a true native to the UK, as they were thought to have been introduced during Roman times, this species is now considered naturalised. It prefers a mixture of grassland, arable fields and hedgerows, grazing on vegetation and the bark of young, woody plants. Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) can also be seen on farmland, although they can be distinguished quite easily as hares are much larger, with longer limbs and longer, black-tipped ears.
Intensification of agricultural practices has led to a reduction in habitat areas that are seen as unproductive, such as hedgerows, rough grassland and open water areas. It has been reported that 60% of farmland species are now in decline. As well as agricultural intensification, other factors behind this decline include changes in farming practices; the use of harmful chemicals, such as insecticides; overgrazing by livestock; destruction of habitats and soil erosion.
Habitat changes caused by development, afforestation or conservation efforts that prioritise alternative habitat types can also pose a threat to farmland. As can changes in management, or a lack thereof; the abandonment of farmland can lead to encroachment by scrubs and trees. While scrubland can be an important habitat for many wildlife species, it is not necessarily suitable for all farmland species, such as ground-nesting birds that prefer open habitats. This could lead to a change in community structure and may even lead to localised extinction of vulnerable species that rely on farmland and cannot survive in other habitats. Changes in land use through development can also impact in a similar way. Furthermore, if the land was originally woodland or wetland, for example, there may be a push to restore it to its previous habitat type, which may not be suitable for the species previously inhabiting the farmland area.
Farmland habitats also face climate change-related challenges. Changes in precipitation, increased extreme weather and increased temperatures can lead to soil degradation, reduced plant growth and changes in the availability of food, shelter and fresh water for wildlife. These factors can also impact crop production, and where this results in reduced yields, this increases the need for agricultural intensification to meet demands, further impacting the farmland ecosystem.
Hopes for the future
A change in the way farmers receive subsidies may signal a shift away from a rather bleak picture for these habitats. Previously, farmers were paid grants based on how much land they owned and farmed. This encouraged them to use as much of their land for productivity as possible. Now, however, farmers will be paid for more sustainable practices instead. Under the Sustainable Farming Incentive, grants will be rewarded for restoration of non-crop habitats, the provision of resources for farmland species year-round and reducing the use of harmful pesticides.
