Book review: Every Living Thing

Every Living Thing cover.***** An epic history of taxonomy across three centuries

Linnaeus was not the only seventeenth-century scholar trying to get to grips with life’s diversity; French naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (Buffon hereafter) was another. Though the two men never met, their ideas did. Author Jason Roberts provides a biography of Linnaeus and Buffon, writing an epic history of their work and intellectual legacy. It has quickly become one of my favourite books this year for introducing me to a new scientific hero.

In the first two parts, Roberts charts the lives and works of Linnaeus and Buffon, alternating between the two as he goes. Having just reviewed The Man Who Organized Nature, I could not resist immediately checking his reference section. Broberg’s books is not amongst them, though he has consulted several other biographies Broberg recommended. His coverage of Linnaeus follows the major beats of his life but leaves out much of the extraneous details that Broberg provided, focusing on his taxonomical ideas. It quickly becomes apparent that Broberg was respectful, even mild, just reporting the facts of Linnaeus’s life but rarely passing judgment. Roberts has no such reservations, calling him out for his arrogance and immodesty. He also covers Linnaeus’s apostles who were sent on collecting expeditions to uncharted parts of the world with often fatal outcomes. True, they went willingly and were not the only ones to do so at the time, but they provided a number of harsh lessons. Roberts particularly holds Linnaeus’s feet to the fire regarding his scientific racism. “Later apologists have attempted to absolve Linnaeus of racism” (p. 180), but not Roberts. Sure, others would make the message more explicit and amplify it but modern race science “has a genealogy that can be traced directly to the pages of Systema Naturae” (p. 181).

In contrast, Buffon (1707–1788) emerges from this book in a far more positive light. Inheriting a fortune at age 10, by 1739 he was nominated as intendant of the Jardin du Roi, gaining both the ear and the financial support of King Louis XV. That was vital for the project that would dominate the rest of his life: Histoire Naturelle. Intended as an encyclopedia of all creation, he wrote 36 large and painstakingly detailed volumes, covering the mineral kingdom and part of the animal kingdom. Like Linnaeus, Buffon was a polymath and became captivated by life’s diversity, but that is where the resemblances end. I admit to knowing little about him before reading this book, but he was a fascinating character! He was the morally more upstanding person of the two, vocally opposing slavery and treating the women who crossed his path as equals. At home, “Buffon designed a life of maximum efficiency” (p. 64), having his valet wake him up at 5 AM every day (even if it meant being dragged out of bed) for a strictly scheduled day of writing in his spartan room, with breaks for meals and some socializing. It was a lifestyle he would stick to for the next 50(!) years, delighting in his “rigorous cultivation of solitary focus” (p. 66).

Who Was Carl Linnaeus? via The Collector.Who Was Carl Linnaeus? via The Collector.

As if that quirk was not enough to endear Buffon to me, his thinking was decades if not centuries ahead of his time. In his writings, he speculated about extinction, common descent and the evolution of species, the cellular basis of life, the finitude of natural resources, and an impending epoch of humans. Roberts provides relevant context to explain the rhetorical safeguards Buffon employed to sidestep censors and is careful to avoid grand claims: we should be careful not to retrofit today’s knowledge to his hunches and speculation back then. He also disentangles the “thicket of significant linguistic differences between Buffon’s era and ours” (p. 199), pointing out that e.g. evolution as we understand it had not yet been coined. Even so, Darwin admitted that Buffon’s ideas were “laughably like mine” (p. xi).

Of relevance to the history of taxonomy, and the leitmotif of this book, is the rivalry between the ideas of these two men. Roberts captures the contrast beautifully early on: “To Linnaeus’s mind, nature was a noun. All species remained as created during Genesis, representing an unchanging tableau. To Buffon, nature was a verb, a swirl of constant change” (p. 7). Linnaeus, like most naturalists at the time, believed in the fixity of species; evolution and extinction implied that Creation was imperfect. Buffon believed that species evolved and went extinct, even if he did not yet know how. Their differences reflected a deep philosophical divide. Linnaeus believed in absolute universal truths, in Aristotelian essences, with species being real entities. Buffon, in contrast, considered systematics and species useful concepts but also flawed human constructs.

Comte de Buffon via the British Library.
Comte de Buffon via the British Library.

What elevated the book for me is that Roberts leaves himself a comfortable 110 pages in part 3 to describe what happened next and what the relevance of their ideas is to us today. The grand arc that he traces is that, after his death, Buffon’s ideas were quickly sidelined by Linnaeus’s adherents but over time have regained their significance. He takes you through the French Revolution and its aftermath, giving terribly interesting profiles of famous naturalists who embraced Buffon’s ideas to various degrees. He also discusses Britain’s lukewarm reception and then slow acceptance of Linnaeus’s ideas, with his collections ending up in England and leading to the founding of the Linnean Society of London. Simultaneously, Buffon influenced Darwin, Thomas Henry Huxley, and his grandson Julian Huxley who lived through the rise of genetics.

Today, Linnaeus’s taxonomical hierarchy has started to creak under the sheer magnitude of the planet’s biodiversity and has increasingly been abandoned, leaving just binomial nomenclature and a hierarchy of categorical ranks. Buffon’s observation, that life is like a web or network instead of a thread, seems more relevant than ever. Meanwhile, species concepts remain troublesome beasts, and some scholars propose we consider species “snapshots rather than static points”, which hews closer to Buffon’s idea they are “an entity of reason rather than a physical fact” (p. 352).

Though Roberts is not a science historian, he has done his homework, going back to source material wherever possible. He is not shy to judge both men by modern standards with Buffon emerging as the clear moral victor. He leaves ample space to discuss the aftermath and modern relevance of their ideas, which is a welcome stroke of brilliance. If you are new to the history of taxonomy, I have no hesitation in recommending that you start here; Broberg’s book is a more advanced text on a more circumscribed topic that will make for good follow-up reading.

Author interview with Stephanie Kim Miles: QGIS for Ecologists

QGIS for Ecologists book cover.QGIS for Ecologists teaches the fundamental stages of mapping land for ecological projects and reports and is ideal for those working in ecological consultancy and conservation, or for students with little to no training on the use of this software. Guiding the reader through the processes of basic survey mapping, aerial imagery, habitat mapping, designated sites and more, it provides a useful resource for anyone unfamiliar with the most accessible platform used to create maps for reports. 

Steph Miles portrait.

Stephanie Kim Miles works as a GIS Officer for the Bumblebee Conservation Trust, having previously worked as an ecological consultant specialising in ornithology. We recently had the opportunity to talk to Stephanie about how they first became interested in QGIS, the challenges they faced while writing a book on such a complex software and more.


Firstly, can you tell us a little about yourself and how you first became interested in QGIS? 

I studied Environmental Science at Lancaster University for my undergraduate degree. When I graduated, it seemed to me that all the cool jobs wanted you to know Geographical Information Systems (GIS). At the time, GIS was not being taught as part of degree programmes, so this was not a skill I had. I was lucky enough to find a role with the promise of being taught GIS on the job and I began working for a multinational engineering and environmental consultancy. I learned how to create maps and spatial analyses for Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) for port expansions and offshore renewables projects, particularly wind farms. Whilst studying for my Masters in Conservation and Biodiversity at the University of Exeter, I tutored fellow students in the use of GIS. When working in an ecological consultancy, I performed field surveys for protected species and used QGIS software for the first time to map the results for reporting. I also became one of the tutors for the course: Beginners QGIS for Ecologists and Conservation Practitioners for the Chartered Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management (CIEEM). I am currently working for The Bumblebee Conservation Trust (BBCT) where I use QGIS to map and analyse spatial data. I use QGIS to support the monitoring and evaluation of bumblebee conservation projects and to map bumblebee records for BeeWalk, a citizen science recording scheme. 

Figure 6.4 Protected Species Map from a Water Vole Survey.
Figure 6.4 Protected Species Map.

For those who might not know about this software, could you give us a brief overview of what QGIS is and its applications in relation to conservation? 

QGIS, as with other GIS software, is a computer programme used to visualise, analyse and map any data with coordinates. You do not need to know how to write computer code as the interface uses a mouse to click through menus, like in familiar Microsoft Office applications, for example.  

QGIS is free of charge making it accessible to those working in small consultancies and conservation charities. The software is open-source, meaning that anyone with the ability to code can write scripts called plugins to automate certain tasks. Fortunately, such coders exist within the ecological community! Particularly useful is the TomBio plugin written by Rich Burkmar and other contributors at the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC). The TomBio plugin enables you to import biological records and easily map them at a suitable scale for the data accuracy as points or grid squares at different scales (as you may have seen on the National Biodiversity Network (NBN)). 

In ecological consultancy, you need to access the impact of works on the habitats and species present and suggest mitigations and improvements. In conservation, you need to be able to access the site condition prior to conservation interventions, during and after habitat improvements and/or species work have taken place. Both ecological consultancy and conservation use similar processes to do this, such as the Ecological Impact Assessment (EcIA) reporting process. This consists of an initial desk study to find existing ecological data and environmental designations, followed by field surveys, the findings of which are written up in a report. At every stage, GIS can be used to map and analyse the data to provide the information and visualisation required for reporting. 

 

Figure 8.45 Advanced Habitats Map.
Figure 8.45 Advanced Habitats Map.

 

What inspired you to write this book for fellow ecologists? 

While developing the teaching materials for CIEEM courses I found I was essentially creating a textbook. I have continued to teach QGIS to colleagues and trainees while working in conservation, becoming more and more aware that a textbook would be really useful for me and those I was teaching. I felt that publishing a book would enable me to train more people in the use of GIS for ecology and conservation than I could on a one-to-one or class basis. I think it is really important that as many ecologists and conservation practitioners as possible can use GIS, I believe every project can be improved by understanding where everything is in relation to each other and creating beautiful, accurate maps to show it. 

This book starts with the basics of QGIS, working up to the creation of several types of maps. How did you decide on the breadth of this book and which tutorials to include?? 

I chose the tutorials to cover maps I have most frequently needed to produce for ecological reporting: a basic survey map, an aerial imagery survey map, a designated sites map, a desk-study map, a protected species map and a Phase 1 habitat map. As part of this you use UK sites and data, learn how to download free-to-use maps and datasets, georeference images and import GPX files into QGIS. Once you have worked through the tutorials, workflows are provided that you can follow with your own sites and data. I hope that having this refresher to refer to means you can maintain GIS skills in your own workplace, without having to reread the entire book to remember what you need to do.  

Figure 3.5 OSM map with grid.
Figure 3.5 OSM map with grid.

Did you face any challenges in creating an easily digestible guide for such complex software? 

Yes! When I first started training others and began writing down instructions for creating maps, I found that I would often leave out certain steps I was very familiar with. In person, teaching a class or one-to-one, I was there to provide any additional steps I had not written down. I knew that in writing the book I would need to make very sure that I had not missed anything! To do so I have spent a number of years perfecting the tutorials and data used to make it as streamlined and clear as possible. 

Another challenge has been the changing nature of data availability, sources and copyright, as well as software updates that all make the processes work slightly differently. I have worked hard to ensure, as much as possible, that the workflows will remain current even if external data sources change. 

Chapters 5–11 contain exercises for readers to undertake to improve their understanding of the subject and enhance their learning experience. Can you briefly describe how you created these and explain why you feel practical exercises were important to include? 

Part 1 includes Chapters 1–3 and provides a summary of the book, an introduction to myself and to QGIS. The practical Part 2 begins at Chapter 4 with instructions for downloading QGIS and the data needed for your first maps. The exercises for producing maps are in Chapters 5–11. Part 3 contains the answers to the exercises in Chapter 5–11. Part 4 is Chapter 12 with the workflows for each maps produced in Chapter 5–11, so you can easily refer back to how each map was made, without having to reread the exercises again. 

I wanted to include exercises aimed at creating maps that ecologists need to produce for reports. As GIS is a practical skill, it was very important to me that, as soon as possible within the book, you are able to create your first map. I have found that it is important to be able to produce maps while learning the basics of GIS. This helps to build confidence in what you are doing and see the results of your learning quickly. I hope that making several types of map, starting simply and ending up with the most complex, makes it easy to follow and it is clear how you will apply the skills you are learning to your work.  

Will you be working on any more projects like this in the future?  

I hope to write a follow-on book about the use of QGIS and QField for data capture in the field using tablet devices. 

QGIS for Ecologists book cover.

QGIS for Ecologists is available to pre-order from the NHBS bookstore

Author interview with Christopher Hart – Hedgelands

Hedgelands book cover showing an artistic drawing of green hedge leaves on a dark green background, with leaves woven over the white text in capital letters saying 'Hedgelands.'Hedges and hedgerows have long been an integral part of the British landscape and are now considered the greatest edge habitat on earth. Hedgelands shines a spotlight on the hawthorn and hazel of ancient hedges, thorny scrub and the creatures that call this habitat their home, telling you everything you could ever want to know about this wild, diverse and incredibly rich habitat – it may even change your perspective of the humble British hedgerow for good.

Portrait of author Christopher Hart wearing a checked shirt, gillet and flat cap with a large hedge behind him.

Christopher Hart has authored ten literary and historical books that have been praised by both The Times Library Supplement and Sunday Sport. He’s written numerous short stories, essays and reviews on a range of subjects, and has worked as a freelance journalist since the 1990s. Hart now lives on a seven-acre plot in Wiltshire which he is in the process of rewilding.

We recently had the opportunity to chat with Christopher about what inspired him to write a book about hedges, how he thinks we can change peoples perceptions of the humble hedgerow and more.


As a writer of primarily historical fiction, what inspired you to write a book celebrating British hedges?

Well, I’ve had quite a chequered career: as well as the historical fiction thing, I’ve been a Mr Whippy Ice Cream Van Driver, Theatre Critic of the Sunday Times, and Agony Uncle for Time Out magazine. None of which qualify me to write about hedges! But really the English countryside is a lifelong passion, and working on our own patch of seven acres, with intermittent grazing, plus trying to encourage maximum wildlife, has taught me directly how vital hedges and thickets are to the entire system. Then my friend Jonathan did this survey on one of his own restored and re-laid hedges, found vivid evidence of the huge benefits to invertebrates, and said to me, Why don’t you write a book? So that’s how it started.

Jonathan stood in front of his re laid hedge.
Jonathan stood in front of his re-laid hedge, by Christopher Hart.

Hedgerows have demonstrable benefits to the environment, yet are often overlooked and under-appreciated by many. How can we change public perception of and attitudes towards the humble hedgerow?

I think real-life examples always work better than statistics. And maybe demonstrating to people directly how many birds, butterflies etc. flourish in our hedgerows could have a great effect, as could enlarging and protecting hedgerows on amenity land, where people actually go regularly, rather than farmland: allotments, for instance, churchyards, and even school grounds.

How does the historical, manual management of hedgerows compare to the mechanical methods used in some agricultural practices today? And how can we encourage a change to more conservation-centred management in these spaces? 

Like every other farm job, the old manual method of hedge-laying with an axe and billhook is a great art and beautiful to watch – but also very slow and expensive! Unless it could be done by teams of roving volunteers, which is a promising idea. But even flailing can be made instantly more eco-friendly by simply doing it every two years instead of one. That could really help, and as I think Jake Fiennes suggests, would actually save the average farmer around £2,500 a year on diesel alone.

A generous field margin on a productive arable farm showing a wide, long grass border against a flourishing hedge.

Can you share some examples of individuals, organisations or locations that are paving the way for best-practice hedgerow management?

I think all the big conservation charities, like the RSPB, are very aware of hedgerows’ importance now, but there are also some admirable specialists like Hedgelink. And the Devon Hedge Group are terrific, doing direct, hands-on work there. If you want to see a truly spectacular hedge though, don’t miss the massive bristling rampart of the ‘Nightingale Hedge’ at Knepp. It’s magnificent! 

How can we get involved in bringing hedgerows to our local communities, and how may we incorporate a hedge into areas with limited space?

One reader of my book has already contacted me for advice on how the hedges in his daughter’s school grounds could be made more nature friendly, perhaps by re-laying or just allowing to thicken up that’s a great example of what we can do quite independently of farmlands. Another suggestion I have is to ‘rewild’ a typical, slightly overmanaged garden hedge, that might be just mono-cultural beech or holly, and let climbers and creepers into it as well: relax about a bit of ivy, or even bramble, let a few nettles grow, or as we have done, allow some self-sown honeysuckle to trail over your privet hedge. Then go out on a warm summer evening and admire the moths that turn up. If the sight of an Elephant Hawk moth doesn’t convert you, I don’t know what will! 

Man-made thicket full of blackthorn in a field.

What’s next for you? Do you have plans for more nature writing?

I most certainly do. The only difficulty is choosing which one to pursue. In the last year I did some experimental ‘re-bogging’ of a small riverside field that was just too waterlogged to offer good grazing, or any other kind of useful food production. It took me all of half an hour with a spade, diverting a field-side drainage ditch. The result has been a quite spectacular explosion of dragonflies and snipe in the winter. I’d love to write something about that. ‘Re-bogging Britain, or ‘The Joy of Re-bogging. What do you think? 


Hedgelands book cover showing an artistic drawing of green hedge leaves on a dark green background, with leaves woven over the white text in capital letters saying 'Hedgelands.'

Hedgelands is published by Chelsea Green and is available from our online bookstore.