Slug is the common name for gastropod molluscs that have little to no shell. Descended from snails, they usually have a vestigial shell that is internalised, but some have either none at all or a very reduced one, such as the shelled slug (Testacella scutulum), which has a fingernail-like shell over its rear end. There are over 30 species of slug in the UK.
As they do not have full-sized shells, they’re prone to desiccation, so many species are most active during and after wet weather and spend drier times hidden in damp places such as under man-made structures, tree bark, leaf litter and rocks. They play an essential role in the ecosystem, similarly to snails, by eating decaying matter such as plant material and fungi, aiding nutrient cycling.
A small number of slugs are considered serious pests to agriculture and horticulture, eating foliage, fruits, and vegetables. This gave rise to the widespread use of toxic slug killing chemicals, which often impacted other non-target species. Recently, however, the use of iron phosphate baits has emerged, as they are less harmful to other wildlife.
Black Slug (Arion ater)
Arion ater, Large Black Slug by gailhampshire, via flickr.
Distribution: Extremely common and widespread throughout Britain.
What to look for: These species are large and vary widely in colour, including black, brown, grey, orange, reddish and green. It has long, coarse tubercles, the raised areas between the grooves on its skin, found on its side and back. Black slugs also have a pneumostome, a breathing hole, on the right side of their mantle, a protective structure of calcareous granules, through which they breathe.
What to look for: A dark or bluish-grey with dark lateral stripes and a pale yellow or orange sole (underside), with a characteristic yellow-orange mucus and no keel. This species also has tiny gold speckles on its tubercles, which are best seen through a hand lens.
Netted slug (Deroceras reticulatum)
Netted Slug – Deroceras reticulatum by AJC1, via flickr.
Distribution: Widespread.
What to look for: This may be the most common slug across the UK. It is a pale, off-white colour, with a keel at the tip of its tail and a mantle that is roughly half the length of its body. It has a chunky build and the tubercles are pale than the rest of its skin, giving it a netted appearance.
Distribution: Widespread, but less common in East Anglia.
What to look for: The dusky slug has various colour forms of yellow and brown. An important feature is the orange body mucus which stains on contact with your skin. It also usually has two dark lateral stripes and a pale sole with a fringe that blends in with the body.
Hedgehog slug (Arion intermedius)
Hedgehog Slug (Arion intermedius) by Richard Ash, via flickr.
Distribution: Widespread but not common.
What to look for: This is a small slug, at only 15–22mm when extended, and is usually pale brown with a darker lateral stripe along its body to the mantle. Its sole is pale yellow and it has coarse tubercles that can contract to ragged points, giving it the reason for its name.
What to look for: The appearance of the leopard slug is quite variable but it usually has a pale background and distinctive dark spots and markings that resemble leopard spots. The markings on its back are usually arranged in three longitudinal bands and it has a pale sole.
Yellow slug (Limax flavus)
Yellow Slug (Limax flavus) by Peter O’Connor, via flickr.
Distribution: Found mainly in England and Wales.
What to look for: The yellow slug is usually a bright, lemon yellow with darker markings, with blue tentacles and a yellow line along the keel which extends from the tail to approximately halfway along its body. This central line can sometimes be broken into dashes.
Green Cellar Slug / Irish Yellow Slug (Limacus maculatus)
Irish Yellow Slug (Limacus maculatus) with slug mites by Peter O’Connor aka anemoneprojectors, via Wikimedia Commons.
Distribution: Introduced population with a spreading range across the UK, less common in Scotland.
What to look for: This species can vary from green to dull yellow with dark markings, grey tentacles and a colourless to orange slime. It can also occasionally have a yellow stripe at the tail end that doesn’t reach more than halfway along its body.
This richly illustrated guide provides a comprehensive, picture-based identification charts and species accounts for 46 slug and semi-slug species known in Britain and Ireland.
In this long-awaited New Naturalist volume, Robert Cameron introduces gastropods, sharing the comprehensive natural history of slugs and snails of the British Isles specifically.
There are eight species of corvid in the UK, five of which belong to the Corvus genus. They are intelligent birds, with many studies finding species demonstrating self-awareness and tool-making abilities. Their brain-to-body mass ratio is only slightly lower than ours and equal to cetaceans and non-human great apes.
Corvids occur worldwide, except for the polar ice caps and the southern tip of South America. Certain species are a common sight in our urban areas, having adapted to the proximity of humans. Some surveys have even found that fitness and reproduction have increased due to human development. Crows and ravens have been shown to have high reproduction rates and a positive association between annual survival and proximity to human development.
The crow family feature heavily in mythology and folklore, often as omens of ill fortune or death, though magpies can also be considered a herald of fortune. This is thought to have derived from their scavenging behaviour, feeding on carrion at battlefields. They were considered by some to be ‘soul guides’, there to carry to dead into the afterlife. Ravens feature in Scandinavian mythology, as the god Odin had two ravens that would tell him secrets they’d heard. This communication also features in Anglo-Saxon history. This is most likely due to the ability of many corvid species to mimic sounds in their environment, including human speech. They do this by using their two ‘syrinxes’, vocal organs located at the base of the bird’s trachea, which is made of ossified cartilage, muscles and vibrating membranes. As corvids have excellent memories, they can be taught a wide range of words and sentences.
All species are listed as green by the Birds of Conservation Concern 4, with the Eurasian Jay being upgraded from its previous amber status.
Carrion crow (Corvus corone)
Distribution: Common and widespread, although less common in northwest Scotland. They are found across many habitats, including woodland, farmland, heathland and urban areas. Wingspan: 84–100cm What to look for: An all-black species, they have a shiny, thick black beak that is of medium length, and black legs. Their black plumage has a glossy sheen. They are fairly solitary and are most likely seen alone or in pairs, but they can occasionally form flocks.
Distribution: Common and widespread, except for parts of the Scottish Highlands. Wingspan: 64–73cm What to look for: The jackdaw is a black species with a distinctive silvery patch on the back of its head. It has pale eyes that are quite easy to see. Their beaks are shorter than carrion crows, though both have an extended patch of feathers on the top of their beak.
Distribution: Widely distributed across most of the UK, although less widespread in Scotland and mostly absent from far northwest Scotland. They are mostly seen in open fields but can be found along roadsides and occasionally in parks and villages. They mainly avoid the centre of larger towns and cities. Wingspan: 81–99cm What to look for: This species is black, with a distinctive bare, greyish-white face and a peaked head. Rooks also have a thinner, paler beak than other corvids, such as carrion crows. This beak darkens towards the tip. Juveniles do not have a bare face, therefore can resemble other all-black corvids such as crows, but they can be distinguished by their peaked head.
Distribution: Widespread across England, Wales and Northern Ireland, present in parts of Scotland except in the north. Wingspan: 52–58cm What to look for: This colourful bird is a light brown to pinkish-grey, with a pale throat and prominent black moustache stripes. Their forehead and crown are pale with dark stripes. The upper surface of their wings is white and black, with a distinctive bright blue patch patterned with black bars. Their tail is white or pinkish underneath but their upper tail feathers are mainly black.
Distribution: Widespread across the UK, except the highlands. Wingspan: 52–62 cm What to look for: This species has a distinctive black and white plumage, with a purple-blue shine to the wings and a green shine to the tail. They have a black beak, black legs and black leg feathers. Did you know? Magpies have long been associated with folklore in many countries, with a wide range of beliefs. Magpies have been thought to signal death, bad luck, good luck, fortune-telling and happiness. They are also the centre of the well-known ‘one for sorrow’ nursery rhyme where the number of magpies signals different events and occurrences. Depending on the version, gatherings of magpies can signal a birth, funeral, wedding, gold, silver, the gender of a child and even the devil.
Distribution: Widespread across Wales, Northern Ireland and the West of Scotland and England. They are found across a number of habitats, including woodland, farmland, upland and marine habitats. Wingspan: 115–150cm What to look for: This is the largest member of the crow family, with an all-black plumage, a large bill and long wings. Their necks are thick, with a shaggy appearance. They have a diamond-shaped tail, best seen in flight. They closely resemble the carrion crow, except for their much larger size, but they can resemble raptors such as buzzards in flight.
Distribution: Small, isolated populations along the west coasts of Wales, Cornwall and Ireland, as well as the Isle of Man. Wingspan: 73–90cm What to look for: Choughs have a blue-black plumage with a green sheen to their wings and tail. They have a slender, red bill that curves downward. Its legs are red with black claws. Juveniles have an orange bill and either pink or grey legs. Did you know? In 2002, a pair of choughs raised young in Cornwall for the first time in more than 50 years. They continued to nest successfully for over a decade, raising 46 chicks in total. In 2022, the population reached 200 birds, with 25 pairs successfully raising over 70 young.
Distribution: Present in Northern Ireland, north and west Scotland, and the Isle of Man. In winter, it is present on the eastern side of England. Wingspan: 93–104cm What to look for: This species has an ashy-grey plumage, with a black head, throat, tail, wings and thigh feathers. It has a black beak and legs, with dark brown eyes. Did you know? The hooded crow was thought to be the same species as the carrion crow until 2002 when they were given full species status.
Marzluff, J. M., and Neatherlin, E., 2006. Corvid response to human settlements and campgrounds: Causes, consequences, and challenges for conservation. Biological Conservation, 130(2), pp. 301-314
Møller, A. P., 2010. The fitness benefit of association with humans: elevated success of birds breeding indoors. Behavioral Ecology, 21(5), pp. 913-918
Thrushes are passerines in the family Turdidae. They are found worldwide. The family was once much larger before biologists determined that the former subfamily Saxicolinae (chats) were Old World flycatchers rather than thrushes. Some thrushes are permanently resident in warm climates, while others migrate to higher latitudes during summer, often over considerable distances. There are four species that regularly breed in UK as well as two winter visitors that also occasionally breed here.
These small to medium-sized ground living birds feed on mainly on insects, other invertebrates and fruit. They generally inhabit wooded areas, creating cup-shaped nests that are sometimes lined with mud. They lay between two to five speckled eggs, with two or more clutches a year.
All the thrushes listed below are protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, including their eggs and nest sites, with several included on the UK Red or Amber List. Song thrushes have even been designation as a Priority Species under the UK Post-2010 Biodiversity Framework.
Blackbird (Turdus merula)
Distribution: This is the most common and widespread thrush, present all year round. BoCC5 status: Green Wingspan: 34–38cm What to look for: Males and females look different, with males being all black, with bright yellow eye-rings and beaks, while females are a redish-brown, with a speckled appearance and duller yellow eye-rings and beaks. The female’s beak can also be dark brown.
Male blackbird by Jacob Spinks via FlickrFemale blackbird by Jacob Spinks via Flickr
Fieldfare (Turdus pilaris)
Distribution: These are winter birds, with only a few remaining to breed in the UK all year round. BoCC5 status: Red Wingspan: 39–42cm What to look for: This is a slight larger bird, with grey heads, necks and rumps, though they have a dark strip across their eye to their orange and black beak. Their backs are dark brown and their tails are black, with a tinged orange throat and a paler, puff coloured breast. They are speckled with dark markings, which are larger on their breast. Their underside is pale.
Distribution: Widespread, across the whole of the British Isles throughout the year. They are absent in parts of the northern and western isles of Scotland. BoCC5 status: Red Wingspan: 42–48cm What to look for: This is the largest of the thrushes, with a dark brown back and paler underside and throat that is speckled with dark brown. It has a pale eye-ring, cheeks and lores. They stand quite upright and have orange legs and an orange and dark brown beak.
Distribution: This is a winter visitor, arriving from late September onwards and leaving again in the summer. They’re found across the UK, except for parts of North Scotland. BoCC5 status: Amber Wingspan: 33–35cm What to look for: This species is the smallest thrush that regularly visits the UK, similar in appearance to the song thrush. Their distinctive feature, however, is the bright orange-red patch on their sides under each wing, as well as the pale stripe over their eye.
Distribution: Summer visitors are found in the uplands of Scotland and northern England, as well as parts of north west Wales and Dartmoor. During spring and autumn, when they migrate, they may be spotted along the east and south coasts of the UK. BoCC5 status: Red Wingspan: 38–42cm What to look for: Males are black, with a pale panel on their wings and a bright white band across their breast, resembling a bib. Females are similar but their colouration is much less striking, looking like a ‘washed out’ version of the male. Both have an orange and black beak and black legs. Their wings and underside feathers have pale outlines, and some can have white patches on their heads.
Male ring ouzel by Nick Goodrum via FlickrFemale ring ouzel by Stefan Berndtsson via Flickr
Song Thrush (Turdus philomelos)
Distribution: Found across the UK, through missing from parts of Northern and Southern Scotland. BoCC5 status: Amber Wingspan: 33–36cm What to look for: This, other than the blackbird, is probably the most well known member of the thrush family. They are a small bird, browner than the mistle thrush, with smaller speckles. Their sides and cheeks are yellowish, with a paler underside, eye-ring, undertail and legs. Their beaks are yellow and black. Did you know? The male song thrush copies other birds’ songs, creating a repertoire that it sings on repeat, often to reinforce territories and attract mates.
Rails, from the family Rallidae, are small- to medium-sized birds and include crakes, coots and gallinules. They can be found in most terrestrial habitats, but the most common are marshland and dense forests. They are present on every continent except Antarctica and are generally omnivores, consuming invertebrates, fruits and seedlings. Typically, they prefer dense vegetation near bodies of water, such as lakes, rivers or swamps.
This is a large family with around 130 species. We have several resident species in the UK, as well as a number of migrants and occasional visitors. Identification of rail species relies on plumage, leg and frontal shield colouration (if present), and their calls. Binoculars and scopes are useful for spotting these features from a distance. Juveniles and chicks will often differ in appearance from adults, therefore a guide covering these life stages is also helpful.
How are rails faring?
Due to hunting, egg collection and habitat loss, many rail species have become extinct and others are endangered. The corncrake and the spotted crake, for example, are classified as Red and Amber under the Birds of Conservation Concern 4. Due to their general flightlessness, they are often heavily impacted by introduced species such as domestic cats. American mink, a nonnative and invasive species in the UK, are a particular threat to moorhen as they can be a main prey item.
Corncrakes are the focus of several conservation projects due to their Europe-wide population declines. Research has shown that increasing the areas of suitable tall vegetation, particularly in spring, autumn and mid-winter, delaying mowing and using certain mowing methods can be effective conservation measures. Up to 60% of chicks are killed by standard mowing practices, due to their flightlessness and reluctance to escape to areas already cut. Since 1992, conservation measures have been implemented on a large scale and have resulted in a partial recovery, from 480 calling males in 1993 in the UK to 1,284 in 2014. However, since 2014, numbers are declining again in Scotland, down by 30% to 870 males in 2019.
Eurasian Coot (Fulica atra)
Distribution: Widespread in England and Wales, rarer in Scotland and Ireland. Numbers are boosted by migrants during winter. BoCC4 status: Green Wingspan: 70–80cm What to look for: The coot is an all-black bird with a distinctive white bill and ‘shield’ on its forehead. They have yellow and white legs with large white feet that have lobed flaps of skin, which act similarly to webbed feet to aid their swimming.
Distribution: Widespread in England, Wales, and Ireland, but less common in Scotland. BoCC4 status: Amber Wingspan: 50–55cm What to look for: Moorhens have a similar appearance to the Eurasian coot, with a blackish plumage, which, when viewed close up, is actually dark brown on its back and wings with a bluer underside. However, they have a red and yellow bill, long green legs and white stripes on their flanks
Distribution: Scarce summer breeding population, recorded in the Western Isles, coastal parts of northern Scotland, parts of Ireland and a few key areas in England. BoCC4 status: Red Wingspan: 46–53cm What to look for: Corncrakes are small birds, slightly larger than a blackbird, with chestnut and dark brown wings and back, a mottled grey to buff underside and reddish-brown and white flanks. Its head is grey, with chestnut eyestripes and a chestnut and dark brown crown. Its legs and bill are pale pink.
Distribution: Scarce, scattered pairs across Scotland and England. BoCC4 status: Amber Wingspan: 37–42cm What to look for: The spotted crake is similar to the corncrake, with chestnut and dark brown wings and back and a greyer underside, but this species is speckled with white throughout and has a buff undertail. It has a similar grey head, chestnut and dark brown crown and chestnut eyestripe. Its legs are yellowish-green and its bill is a mix of orange, yellow and grey.
Distribution: Widespread but thinly distributed throughout England, parts of Wales and Ireland. More scarce in Scotland and absent from upland areas. BoCC4 status: Green Wingspan: 38–45cm What to look for: Their back and wings are chestnut and dark brown, with a grey underside and face. They have black-and-white barred flanks, a chestnut and dark brown crown, a long, red bill with a darker upper part and greyish-pink legs.
Distribution: Occasional visitors, small number of records around England. Global status: Least concern Wingspan: 38cm What to look for: The sora has a brown back marked with small black and white lines, a blue-grey underside and face, a short yellow bill with black markings at the base and yellow legs. Their flanks are barred with white and black.
The detailed ecology of the corncrake, including many important facts about its lifestyle and behaviour, remains mysterious, even among ornithologists. This is the first full-length book to capture all the aspects of corncrake ecology and present this information to non-specialists.
With expanded text and additional colour illustrations, the third edition of the hugely successful Collins Bird Guide is a must for every birdwatcher. The new edition has an extra 32 pages allowing several groups more space and completely or partly new plates with more detailed text.
A bestselling guide since it was first published, Britain’s Birds has quickly established itself as the go-to photographic identification guide – the most comprehensive, up-to-date, practical and user-friendly book of its kind. Acclaimed by birdwatchers of all kinds, from the beginner to the most experienced, the guide has now been thoroughly revised and updated to make it even better than before.
This is an environmentally responsible, all-weather paper which will survive anything from torrential rain to extreme heat and humidity. Perfect for making notes when birdwatching.
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These have an ultra-compact design to make them among the smallest waterproof roof prism binoculars available on the market today. Great for travelling and fantastic for children as young as seven.
This is a pocket-sized green laser designed for use on birding trips. Its green beam will allow you to easily point out the location of a bird to fellow observers whilst remaining safe for both the birds and the user.
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Lichens are composites of two or more different organisms, an alga or cyanobacteria living among the filaments of a fungus species. It is a symbiotic relationship where the fungal partner, also termed the mycobiont, makes up the body or ‘thallus’, and the algae or cyanobacteria is the photosynthetic partner, or photobiont, providing nourishment. There is debate as to whether this symbiotic relationship is mutualistic, where both parties benefit and neither is harmed through this interaction, or a type of controlled parasitism, where the mycobiont is ‘farming’ the photobiont for the sugars produced by photosynthesis.
There are over 1,800 species recorded in the UK, and 17,000 species worldwide. There are three main categories of lichen body types: crustose, fruticose and foliose. Crustose lichen are species that form thin, crust-like coverings that are tightly bound to the surface they’re on. Fruticose lichen form coral-like bushy or shrubby structures with a holdfast, a root-like structure that anchors it to trees, rocks or other surfaces. Foliose lichen are species that have a flattened, leaf-like thallus with an upper and lower cortex, the surface layer or ‘skin’ of the lichen, and attach to surfaces by hyphae with root-like structures called rhizines. There are other growth forms, such as leprose (a powder-like or granular appearance), squamulose (scaly), filamentose (stringy) and byssoid (wispy). These can also be divided into numerous subtypes.
Lichens are an important food source for many species, such as deer and goats, and are used as building material for birds nests. They occur from sea level to high elevations, tolerating many different environmental conditions. They grow on a wide variety of surfaces, from tree bark, leaves, mosses, rocks, gravestones, roofs, soil, bones and rubber. The general guidance for identifying lichens is to look at growth form, colour, habitat and substrate type and distribution. You should also look for the presence or absence of certain structures such as rhizines, soredia (scale-like reproductive structures), isidia (column-like outgrowths of the thallus) and apothecia (a cup-shaped structure containing asci, spore-bearing cells). A hand lens and a guide that covers other lichen species will be useful for identifying these.
Spot tests can be performed, which involve placing a drop of a chemical, such as potassium hydroxide or sodium hypochlorite, on different parts of the lichen. Any colour change, or lack thereof, can be used for identification when following dichotomous keys for lichen species. Care should be taken when using chemicals, however, particularly in the natural environment, due to the damage they can cause.
Some species are harder to identify in the field and require microscopic examination or further chemical testing. Additionally, there may be variations in appearance due to weather conditions or the condition of the lichen. Its colour can change when the lichen is wet or in poor condition, for example, or the growth form can appear different if the lichen has begun to disintegrate.
Elegant Sunburst Lichen (Xanthoria elegans)
Distribution: Widespread, but most frequently found in upland areas. Growth type: Foliose What to look for: This is a small lichen, typically no more than 5cm wide with lobes that are less than 2mm broad and closely pressed against a surface. Their upper surface is orange, with a white lower surface, a cortex (skin), and attached with short, sparse hapters (peg-like structures on the lower surface of lichen). Soredia and isidia are absent but apothecia structures are common.
Common Greenshield Lichen (Flavoparmelia caperata)
Distribution: Widespread, more common in the western and southern parts of England, scarce in northern and central Scotland. Growth type: Foliose What to look for: This is a pale grey species that turns yellowish-green when wet. The lower surface is black with a brown margin and black, unbranched rhizoids that attach it to the substrate. Its lobes are rounded, around 3–8mm wide, with patches of soredia. The lobes are often wrinkled in appearance, particularly in older specimens.
Distribution: Widespread Growth type: Foliose What to look for: Hooded rosette lichen is a pale grey species, with lobes up to 2mm wide that are curled into a hood shape. They have cilia, thin projections from the margin of the lichen, which progress from pale to black at the ends. Soralia are usually abundant and disc-shaped apothecia can also be present. The lower surface is white to greyish. They are attached to surfaces by rhizines, which can be white to black.
Distribution: Fairly widespread Growth type: Foliose What to look for: This species is pale, from white to bluish-grey. It has white-rimmed apothecia that have black centres. Soralia and marginal cilia are absent. The lobes also have distinct flecks of white called pseudocyphellae. It grows in well-lit habitats, usually on fences or trees, often in the nodes of branches.
Common Orange Lichen / Yellow Scale (Xanthoria parietina)
Distribution: Widespread Growth type: Foliose What to look for: This species is a yellow-orange coloured lichen that can appear greener when wet. It is a leafy lichen with flattened lobes that are between 1–4mm in diameter. Its lower surface is white and has pale rhizines or hapters. Similarly to X. elegans, soredia and isidia are absent but yellow or orange apothecia are usually present. There is a cortex that is made of tightly packed fungal hyphae, which can be thicker in more exposed locations and is thought to protect the lichen from evaporation and exposure.
Distribution: Widespread Growth type: Foliose What to look for: The thallus is grey to greenish-grey, with inflated lobes that lift at the tips. These inflations can burst open, displaying the floury soredia inside. They may have black dots, called pycnidia, near the lobe tips. Rhizines are absent and the lower surface is wrinkled with a light brown margin, darkening towards a black centre. They may have apothecia, which occur on short stalks and have a red-brown disc.
Distribution: Widespread, particularly in heathland, healthy turf and on dunes. Growth type: Fruticose What to look for: This species has an upright secondary thallus, called the podetium, which can vary from grey-green to brown. This forms loose mats, and the finer branches are erect and sharply pointed. Soredia are absent, with few to no squamules (scales). They may have small, green areolar patches set into or raised on the cortex surface. The podetia become darker brown and glossy with age. Pycnidia, the asexual fruiting bodies, are small, brown and are found on the branch tips. This species has apothecia, which are brown and occur in extended clusters at the ends of podetia.
Distribution: Scattered distribution, mainly in parts of Wales, south- and north-west England and scattered areas of Scotland. Growth type: Foliose What to look for: The thallus of this species is a pale grey or brown when dry but becomes brownish or yellowish-green when wet. It has convex pustules across its upper surface which often appear darker in colour and are covered in a powder towards the centre. The margins of this species are often ragged and can be darkened by the presence of black isidia. The lower surface can be grey, brown or black, and have corresponding depressions to the pustules on the upper surface. Rhizines are absent and this species is attached to substrate by a stalk.
Dry state: Jacinta lluch valero via FlickrWet state: Björn S… via Flickr
Oakmoss (Evernia prunastri)
Distribution: Widespread Growth type: Fruticose What to look for: They primarily grow on oak trees but can be found on the trunk and branches of other deciduous trees and conifers. This species is flat and strap-like, highly branched (forked) and bushy, forming large clumps when growing together. When dry the thallus is rough and the colour can vary from green to a pale greenish-white. When wet, they appear dark olive-green to yellow-green and are rubbery in texture.
Distribution: Widespread in Scotland and Wales, scattered throughout England, more common in the north and west. Growth type: Fruticose What to look for: Pink earth lichen have bulbous pink apothecia that are around 1–4mm in diameter, set on stalks up to 6mm tall, although these are not always present. The thallus can vary in colour between grey or white, occasionally with a pink tinge, and can appear greenish-grey when wet. They are coarsely granular and are sometimes covered in small, white balls up to 1mm in width, with small powdery areas.
Distribution: Widespread in Scotland and north-west England, and the upland areas of England, Wales and Ireland. Less common in the East Midlands, East of England and the South East. Growth type: Crustose What to look for: This is a bright yellow to yellow-green species, with a cracked thallus, flat, black apothecia and bordered by a black line of fungal hyphae. This lichen grows in patches adjacent to each other, giving the appearance of a map.
The result of several years of investigation carried out on several different continents, this remarkable book offers an original, radical and, like its subject matter, symbiotic reflection on this common but mostly invisible form of life, blending cultures and disciplines, drawing on biology, ecology, philosophy, literature, poetry, and even graphic art.
This book provides an invaluable guide to identifying the British and Irish species both for the amateur naturalist just starting to study lichens and the more advanced lichenologist. It offers the environmentalist and ecologist a concise work of reference, compact enough to be used in the field.
These colourful and widespread organisms can be seen all year round. Featuring six of the FSC’s popular fold-out charts: lichens on twigs, churchyard lichens, urban lichens 1 and 2, rocky shore lichens and lichens of heaths and moors
Each pack includes a card-sized magnifier, so you can get in even closer to the details.
Observe the finer details of your specimen with this high-quality 23mm doublet lens, the most commonly recommended magnifier for all types of fieldwork.
All prices are correct at the time of posting, but may change at any time. Please see nhbs.com for up to date pricing and availability.
Mosses belong to a group of plants called bryophytes. Comprising the mosses, liverworts and hornworts, there are over 1000 species of bryophyte in Britain and Ireland, which is around 58% of the species found in the whole of Europe.
Although often overlooked, mosses are fascinating to study and are structurally both complex and elegant. When seen through a hand lens or microscope they have details that easily compare in beauty with those of their larger plant cousins.
In this article we’ll introduce you to a handful of some of the commonest and easiest to identify mosses that you will find in the UK. If you’re interested in learning more, we’ve also provided a list of excellent field guides and books at the bottom of the guide, along with some helpful links to other online resources.
Why are mosses important?
Mosses are one of the first plants to colonise bare ground. They provide important habitat for invertebrates, particularly those fond of a damp environment such as slugs and woodlice. A healthy mossy environment will also be attractive to larger animals who feed on these invertebrates, such as frogs and toads, and will provide shelter to a diverse range of microscopic organisms, including nemotodes, rotifers and tardigrades.
Mosses can hold a huge amount of water and so play a crucial role in mitigating flooding during periods of intense rainfall. Sphagnum moss in particular can absorb up to 20 times its weight in water, and is instrumental in slowing the flow of rainwater from the hills and moors and reducing the risk of flooding in downstream towns and cities.
Did you know?
Mosses have stems and leaves but no true roots or advanced vascular systems. This is why we only have small mosses and not ones that are the size of trees!
There are around 20,000 species of moss worldwide and they are found everywhere except for in the sea – even in Antarctica!
Unlike flowering plants, mosses produce spores rather than seeds and flowers. Spores are produced in a small capsule which grows on a long stem called a seta.
Mosses require damp conditions for reproduction – this is because the male cells require a film of water in order to reach the female cells and fertilise them.
Also known as ‘ordinary moss’, rough-stalked feather moss is one of our most common moss species, and can be found growing widely in woodlands, lawns and at the base of hedges. It is yellow-green in colour and has branching stems with pointed oval leaves. Shoot tips are generally pale and glossy. Curved, egg-shaped capsules are frequently produced.
Also known as marsh hair moss, common haircap is one of our tallest species of moss and can form clumps up to 40cm in height. Found in damp, acidic areas such as heaths, bogs and moorland, it can also be found near to streams and rivers within woodland. Plants are bright green, fading to brown with age, and often grow in compact clumps. The stems are tough and wiry, and its leaves are narrow and spear-shaped. When viewed from above, each individual stem looks star-like. In the summer it produces brown, box-shaped capsules.
Swan’s-neck thyme-moss is abundant in acidic woodland on logs, rocks and soil. It has upright stems which are 2–4cm tall, and leaves which are approximately 4mm in length with a toothed border. Frequently produces capsules on the end of 2.5–5cm long stalks. Capsules have a pointed tip.
Common tamarisk moss is very distinctive and forms loose mats of fern-like shoots which range from yellow-green to dark green. Individual leaves are triangular or heart shaped, and the stems can be green or red-brown. It forms capsules only occasionally in the autumn and winter. It commonly grows on neutral soil in woodland, hedges and damp grass.
There are more than 30 species of sphagnum moss in the UK and they can be very difficult to tell apart. Although each plant is small, they often grow together in dense mats to form large areas of spongy carpet. Sometimes referred to as ‘bog-mosses’, they can be beautifully multi-coloured and thrive on peat bogs, marshland, heath and moorland. They also have an important role in the formation of peat bogs.
Common striated feather-moss (Eurhynchium striatum)
Common striated feather-moss is common in lowland woodland, particularly those with a high clay soil. It often forms cushions or mats that can cover large areas. Leaves are triangular or heart-shaped with finely toothed margins and have wrinkles that run down the length of the leaf (you may need a hand lens to observe this identifying feature). Spore capsules are only occasionally present, but have a beak-shaped tip.
Recommended reading
A Field Guide to Bryophytes
This field guide covers 133 species of moss and liverwort encountered in most UK habitats, using non-specialist terms to help identify them on over 100 full-colour pages. Twelve flow-charts help identify species by the habitat they occur in. All proceeds from the sale of this book go directly to the conservation program of The Species Recovery Trust.
Mosses and Liverworts of Britain and Ireland: A Field Guide
This invaluable guide features hundreds of colour photographs and black and white drawings, both of whole plants and with distinguishing features magnified. It also includes notes on how to identify and distinguish plants from similar species, alongside distribution maps and habitat notes.
Guide to Mosses and Liverworts of Woodlands
Mosses and liverworts can form quite an extensive part of the woodland flora, carpeting the ground and covering tree trunks and branches. This guide covers seven liverworts and 16 mosses commonly found in woodlands. Photographs of plants in the wild and brief identification notes are provided to aid identification.
Moss: From Forest to Garden: A Guide to the Hidden World of Moss
In Moss you’ll discover the key moss varieties and where they can be found, as well as the cultural history of moss both as a garden plant and its uses in traditional handicrafts. Take a tour of the best moss gardens in Japan, the UK and the US, and meet people who share their passion for these plants.
Useful links
British Bryological Society (BBS) – The BBS supports anyone interested in the study and conservation of mosses, from the absolute beginner to the experienced researcher. They host field meetings, organise recording and research projects, and publish an academic journal as well as a popular membership magazine.
Hoverflies, of the insect family Syrphidae, are often to be found hovering around flowers and, for this reason, are known as flower flies in many parts of the world. The adults of most species feed largely on nectar and pollen making them important pollinators. Their larvae eat a range of foods; some feed on decaying plant and animal matter whilst others are important predators of aphids, thrips and other insects commonly considered to be ‘crop pests’. Although completely harmless to humans and other mammals, many hoverfly species mimic stinging wasps or bees in an effort to protect themselves from predation.
This is the second instalment in our two part guide to UK hoverflies, in which we cover many of the common species that you are likely to encounter in your garden or local outdoor space. Part one can be found here.
Eristalis pertinax
Distribution: Widespread throughout Britain and Ireland. Habitat: E. pertinax can be found in a number of habitats, including woodlands, gardens and moorland. What to look for: Similar in size and appearance to E. tenax (see The NHBS guide to UK hoverflies: Part 1), the easiest character to use to identify this species is the yellow tarsi (the last segments of the leg) on the front and middle legs. The abdomen tapers towards the end, giving it a triangular shape that can also help to separate this species from E. tenax. Months active: March to November, with peaks in both May and August. Did you know: This is one of the first species to emerge in the spring, when males can often be seen defending territories in woodland rides and around flowers.
Eristalis pertinax. Image by Gail Hampshire via Flickr.
The Eristalis genus includes a number of common species that are likely to be encountered in gardens, such as E. pertinax and E. arbustorum. The May issue of British Wildlife magazine includes an article by Roger Morris and Stuart Ball that provides an introduction to the Eristalis genus, and includes an identification key to the ten Eristalis species that occur in the UK.
Baccha elongata
Distribution: Widespread throughout Britain and Ireland, although less common in parts of Scotland. Habitat: Prefers shaded spots, such as woodland margins and hedgerows. What to look for: Although generally overlooked due to its small size, B. elongata is unmistakable because of its long, slender, wasp-like abdomen. Months active: April to November, with peaks in both May and September. Did you know: Unlike many other hoverflies, B. elongata is rarely seen basking in sunlit areas but tends to be found in low, shaded vegetation. The predatory larvae feed on a number of aphid species, such as Nettle Aphid and Bramble Aphid.
Baccha elongata. Image by Frank Vassen via Flickr.
Episyrphus balteatus
Distribution: Widespread throughout Britain and Ireland. Habitat: A wide range of habitats, including gardens and woodlands. What to look for:Episyrphus balteatus,often known as the Marmalade Hoverfly, is an easily recognisable species and one of the most common hoverflies in the UK – it won’t take too long for you to spot this regular garden visitor. Each of the abdominal segments has two black bands separated by orange bands. This pattern is unique to this species, but the overall colouration of individuals can vary depending on the temperature at which the larvae develop. Months active: Individuals can be recorded in all months of the year, but there is usually a peak in numbers in July. Did you know: The arrival of huge numbers of migrants from mainland Europe can sometimes lead to reports in the media of a mass influx of ‘wasps’.
Episyrphus balteatus. Image by Gail Hampshire via Flickr.
Scaeva pyrastri
Distribution: Widespread in England, Wales and Ireland, but much less common in Scotland. Habitat: Can be found in a variety of habitats, including gardens and woodlands. What to look for: White, comma-shaped spots on the abdomen are a key identification feature, but completely black individuals can occur. Months active: May to November, with a peak in August. Did you know:S. pyrastri is a migratory species and its numbers in Britain vary greatly between years.
Scaeva pyrastri. Image by Frank Vassen via Flickr.
Leucozona lucorum
Distribution: Widespread throughout Britain and Ireland, although less abundant in northern Scotland. Habitat: Woodland rides and edges, and hedgerows. What to look for: The black wing clouds and broad creamy markings on the second abdominal segment are distinctive characteristics of this species. Confusion can occur with the similar Cheliosa illustrata, but the yellow scutellum (a shield-shaped segment behind the thorax) of L. lucorum will help with identification. Months active: Between May and August, with a peak in May and June. Did you know:L. lucorum is primarily a spring species, but in some years there is a second generation in midsummer.
Leucozona lucorum. Image by Gail Hampshire via Flickr.
Helophilus pendulus
Distribution: Widespread throughout Britain and Ireland. Habitat: A wide range of habitats, including gardens. What to look for: A very eye-catching hoverfly with pale, longitudinal stripes on its thorax and a yellow face with a dark central stripe. It is possible to confuse this species with H. hybridus, although the yellow markings on the second and third abdominal segments are separated by a black band. Months active: Between April and November with a peak in July. Did you know:H. pendulus is commonly seen basking on leaves and often produces a buzzing sound while doing so.
Helophilus pendulus. Image by Nick Goodrum via Flickr.
Syritta pipiens
Distribution: Widespread in Britain and Ireland, although less abundant in parts of northern Scotland. Habitat: A variety of habitats and common in gardens. What to look for: Despite being a small, slender species, S. pipiens is instantly recognisable by the swollen hind femora. The sides of the thorax are also dusted grey. Months active: April to November, but more abundant in late summer. Did you know: Male S. pipiens are highly territorial and will force each other to move backwards and forwards until one admits defeat and gives up.
Distribution: Widespread in southern England and parts of Wales. Habitat: A variety of habitats, including gardens and parks in urban areas What to look for: Britain’s largest hoverfly, this species is often known as the Hornet Hoverfly due to the strong yellow-and-black bands on the abdomen and the impressive size (wing length can be between 15.5mm and 19.5mm). The only other hoverfly that V. zonaria could be confused with is V. inanis, but the latter is largely yellow underneath whereas V. zonaria is chestnut coloured with broad black bands. Months active: May to November, with a peak in August. Did you know:V. zonaria is a relatively recent addition to the British fauna. It first colonised the south of England in the 1930s and its range is rapidly expanding. The larvae live in the nests of social wasps, such as the Hornet and Common Wasp.
Volucella zonaria. Image by Tim Worfolk via Flickr.
Sphaerophoria scripta
Distribution: Widespread in England and Wales, but only recorded from the east coast of Ireland and less abundant in northern England and Scotland. Habitat: Grasslands. What to look for: Identifying individual species in the Sphaerophoria genus, particularly females, can be extremely difficult. Male S. scripta can be easier to identify as the abdomen is much longer than the wings and has broad yellow bands, although the markings can vary. Confusion can occur with S. batava and S. taeniata, as these two species also have yellow bands; examination of the male genitalia is the only way to determine identification. Months active: Between April and November, with a peak in July and August Did you know: This is the most common Sphaerophoria species and is often found in grassland. There is no resident population in northern Britain, but numbers are boosted in some years by an influx of migrant individuals.
Sphaerophoria scripta. Image by Sebastien Faillon via Flickr.
Chrysotoxum bicinctum
Distribution: Widespread in Ireland and southern England, but less common in northern England and Scotland. Habitat: Open grasslands and grassy woodland rides. What to look for: The yellow bars on the second and fourth abdominal segment and the chocolate-brown patches on the wings make this wasp mimic instantly recognisable. Months active: May to September, with a peak between June and August. Did you know: Members of the Chrysotoxum genus are easy to recognise due to their long antennae which point forwards. Other hoverfly groups with similar antennae do not have the yellow-and-black markings of Chrysotoxum.
Chrysotoxum bicinctum. Image by Martin Andersson via Wikipedia.
Cheilosia illustrata
Distribution: Widespread throughout Britain and Ireland, although less abundant in the north-east of Scotland. Habitat: Hedgerows and woodland edges where umbellifers such as Hogweed or Angelica are present. What to look for: Not an entirely believable bumblebee mimic, C. illustrata has a band of pale hairs at the end of the abdomen and dark wing clouds. It is possible to mistake this species for Leucozona lucorum, but the black face and black scutellum of C. illustrata help to distinguish it. Months active: April to September, peaking in July. Did you know: The larvae of this species mine the roots and stems of large Hogweed plants and the adults are often observed feeding on the flowers.
In this classic work by Stubbs and Falk, 276 species are described. Their identification is made easy by the extensive keys which incorporate over 640 line drawings.
These small sampling containers are made from see-through polypropylene and have secure screw-on lids. They are ideal for the temporary storage of specimens.
Observe the finer details of your specimen with this high-quality 23mm doublet lens, the most commonly recommended magnifier for all types of fieldwork.
With approximately 7,000 species, the Diptera (true flies) are one of the biggest insect orders in Britain and Ireland, second only to Hymenoptera (the bees, wasps and ants). Of these species, over 280 belong to the family Syrphidae, the hoverflies. Known as ‘flower flies’ in other parts of the world, hoverflies are frequent visitors to flowering plants and are a familiar sight in our gardens and woodlands, and a wide range of other habitats. You would be forgiven for mistaking a hoverfly for a bee or wasp, as some species are amazing mimics in terms of both their appearance and behaviour, although some are more convincing than others.
Hoverflies are important, and often overlooked, pollinators, and their larval stages are incredibly diverse. Some larvae are predatory, feeding on aphids or eating grubs within the nests of ants, social bees or wasps, while others feed on the roots, stems or leaves of plants, or on dead and decaying organic matter, such as rotting wood or material collected in rot holes in trees.
Although many hoverflies are brightly coloured or distinctively patterned, there are plenty of inconspicuous species that resemble flies in other families. The first step is therefore to determine that a fly is in fact a hoverfly. In general hoverflies lack the strong bristles we see in other flies, such as the house fly, but the key characteristic is their wing venation. Unlike other flies, hoverflies have a ‘false vein’ on their wing, and although this is a difficult feature to get an eye for initially, it can be obvious in good photos and becomes easier to spot with practice. Another clue is in the name; hoverflies are remarkable fliers and many species are able to hold their position in flight for an incredible length of time.
Hoverfly identification can be difficult, and in some cases it is necessary to inspect a specimen under a microscope for a positive ID. There are many garden visitors that are more straightforward, however, and with a good field guide, a hand lens and a camera to take clear photos with, you can easily get started in learning more about this attractive group of insects. There are fantastic resources online too, such as the UK Hoverflies group on Facebook, which provides help with identification and allows members to share their observations.
This is the first of two hoverfly identification guides, and in both of these blogs we will be covering the more common species that you are likely to encounter in your garden or local patch.
Eristalis tenax
Distribution: Widespread throughout Britain and Ireland. E. tenax is thought to be the most widespread hoverfly species in the world. Habitat: A wide range of habitats including gardens, woodlands and meadows. What to look for: A convincing honey-bee mimic that can be easily told from other species of Eristalis by three obvious characteristics: a thickened, curved hind tibia; a broad, dark facial stripe; and vertical stripes of dark hairs on the eyes.
Months active: Present throughout the year, but most frequently recorded between February and April, and June and November.
Did you know: Females hibernate over the winter, and males are increasingly being recorded hibernating during warmer winters in southern England. The aquatic larvae, or ‘rat-tailed maggots’, live in wet, decaying vegetation
The Eristalis genus includes a number of common species that are likely to be encountered in gardens, such as E. pertinax and E. arbustorum. The May issue of British Wildlife magazine includes an article by Roger Morris and Stuart Ball that provides an introduction to the Eristalis genus, and includes an identification key to the ten Eristalis species that occur in the UK.
Myathropa florea
Distribution: Widespread throughout Britain and Ireland. Habitat: A variety of habitats, but found in woodlands especially.
What to look for: Similar to some Eristalis species, Myathropea florea is a distinctive black-and-yellow species with a bat-like pattern on its thorax, although this can vary and cause confusion in less clearly marked individuals. Months active: April to October. Did you know: Like other species in the Eristalini tribe, M. florea larvae are known as ‘rat-tailed maggots’ and are found in wet hollows containing decaying vegetation, although they have been reported making use of any containers holding water and dead vegetation, such as buckets or water butts.
Distribution: Widespread throughout Britain and Ireland. Habitat: A number of habitats including woodlands, gardens and hedgerows.
What to look for: Females can be easily identified by their completely yellow hind femora, although males are harder to distinguish from two other common Syrphus species, S. torvus and S. vitripennis. Male S. ribesii can be separated from S. torvus by their bare eyes, but a microscope is needed to reliably separate males of S. ribesii and S. vitripennis. Months active: From March to November, with peaks in May–June and July–September. Did you know: Male S. ribesii will emit a noticeable humming noise from tree canopies, caused by vibrating their wings at a high frequency when resting.
Syrphus ribesii (Female) by Martin Cooper via Flickr
Merodon equestris
Distribution: Widespread in Britain and Ireland, but less abundant in parts of Scotland. Habitat: Often recorded in gardens and urban areas. What to look for: A hairy bumblebee mimic that has swollen hind femora with triangular projections – a characteristic unique among bumblebee mimics. M. equestris can occur in a range of colour forms to mimic different bumblebee species. Months active: Between April and September, with a peak in late May and early June. Did you know: The larvae develop in the bulbs of many different bulb-forming plants, but they are especially associated with daffodils and can be a pest in some cases. They are thought to have been introduced to Britain in the 19th century in daffodil bulbs.
Distribution: Widespread throughout Britain and Ireland. Habitat: Woodland edges and hedgerows, and often seen in gardens. What to look for: Females are easier to recognise due to their yellow legs and silver spots on their black abdomen. Males tend to have bronze-coloured spots, a front tibia that is significantly broader at the end, and front femora that have distinctive clumps of long hairs. It is possible to confuse males with similar species such as P. aurolateralis, P. scutatus, and P. splendidus, and so close examination of the legs is required. Months active: Between March and November, with peaks between May and June, and July and August. Did you know: A common garden visitor, particularly in spring, P. albimanus is often found in low vegetation such as nettles or brambles.
Platycheirus albimanus (female) by S. Rae via FlickrPlatycheirus albimanus (male) by Martin Cooper via Flickr
Eupeodes corollae
Distribution: Widespread in Britain, although less abundant in northern Scotland. Habitat: Recorded in almost any habitat, from gardens to mountain tops. What to look for: Males and females are quite different in appearance, but both have broad yellow markings that reach the edges of the abdomen. The males also have an obvious genital capsule. Months active: March to November, with a peak between July and August. Did you know: E. corollae is found in a wide variety of habitats. An influx of migrants or a mass emergence of individuals results in a peak in numbers in midsummer.
Eupeodes corollae (male) by S. Rae via FlickrEupeodes corollae (female) by gailhampshire via Flickr
Melanostoma mellinum
Distribution: Widespread throughout Britain and Ireland. Habitat: Grasslands. What to look for: It is easy to confuse this species with M. scalare, and so close examination is required. In females, the top of the head is a shining black with very narrow dust spots by the eyes, while the abdomen has distinctive yellow markings. Males have a relatively short abdomen and the second and third segments are as wide as they are long. Months active: April to October, with peaks in May–June and July–August. Did you know: This is one of the most common hoverfly species in the UK and is often recorded from grasslands, although it can also be found in high numbers in the uplands such as on moorland or mountainsides.
Distribution: Widespread in Britain and Ireland, but rare in parts of northern Scotland. Habitat: Woodlands, road verges and hedgerows. What to look for: A small, dark hoverfly (even the wings are dark) with bright red eyes. Confusion can occur with other Chrysogaster species, or even small house flies. Months active: May to October, with a peak in July and August. Did you know: A common woodland species, particularly in damp and shady locations. C. solstitialis is often seen in concentrated numbers on umbellifers such as Hogweed and Angelica.
Chrysogaster solstitialis by Lukas Large via Flickr
Rhingia campestris
Distribution: Widespread throughout Britain and Ireland. Habitat: Woodlands and field edges, but found in a variety of habitats. What to look for: The long snout and orange abdomen make this an unmistakable species. The only potential for confusion is with the UK’s other Rhingia species, R. rostrata, but the dark edges of the abdomen and overall darker colouration of R. campestris are distinctive. Months active: April to October, with peaks between May and June, and August to September. Did you know: The long snout allows R. campestris to feed on plants with deep tubes, such as bluebells, which other hoverflies cannot use. The larvae breed in cow dung, although other breeding habitats are also thought to be used as adults can occur in high numbers where there are few or no cattle.
Distribution: Widespread in Britain and Ireland, although absent from central England and scarce in south-east England. Habitat: Acidic, boggy habitats, such as wetlands and heathlands. What to look for: A large wasp mimic with distinctive black-and-yellow banding – it is very unlikely that this species would be confused with any other hoverfly. Months active: May to November, with a peak in July. Did you know: This is a very mobile species, which is often found far from breeding sites. It visits a range of plants, but seems to have a preference for red or purple flowers, such as Devil’s-bit Scabious.
Distribution: Widespread in Ireland, Wales and southern England, but rarely occurs in high numbers. Habitat: Woodland. What to look for: Easily recognisable, F. cuprea has a metallic, brassy abdomen with grey longitudinal stripes on the thorax. The thorax also has strong bristles on its side, which is quite uncommon for a hoverfly. Months active: March to November, with a peak in June. Did you know: F. cuprea is rarely seen visiting flowers, and is more likely to be seen basking on tree trunks, wooden posts or even telegraph poles.
Shieldbugs are insects in the superfamily Pentatomoidea. They are characterised by their well-developed scutellum, the hardened extension of the thorax over the abdomen. Many shieldbug species are triangular, with a broad pronotum and pointed end to the abdomen. They also produce a foul-smelling liquid from their prothoracic glands, which inspired the American name “stink bug”, although this name is specific to the family Pentatomidae.
Some shieldbugs are considered pest species due to the damage they can cause to crops. The recent arrival of the brown marmorated stink bug (Halyomorpha halys)to the UK is considered a serious threat to fruit and vegetable crops. They damage the salability of produce and can even contaminate the taste of juice or wine, causing waste and a loss in income.
Identifying shieldbugs is usually based on structural characteristics, body length (from the head to the end of the abdomen, ignoring the antennae and legs), and species range. Colouration and pattern can be useful but there is often variation between individuals of the same species. Using a hand lens, sweep net or beating tray can help when surveying for shieldbugs. A field guide that includes juvenile stages would also be useful as nymphs can often have different colour patterns to adults.
Hawthorn Shieldbug (Acanthosoma haemorrhoidale)
Distribution: Widespread across the UK. What to look for:The most common shield bug in the UK, the hawthorn shieldbug is also UK’s largest. Its scutellum and pronotum are green, framed with red sides. The ‘shoulders’ of its pronotum are pointed with red and black tips, and its corium, the thickened basal portion of the forewing, is red. Its wing membrane can vary in colour but is usually red. Similar species: The birch shieldbug (Elasmostethus interstinctus) but this species does not have a green scutellum. The juniper shieldbug (Cyphostethus tristriatus) is also similar but this species does not have a red wing membrane.
Distribution: Widespread in England, Wales, and parts of Northern Ireland. What to look for: This is a larger species, with a dark wing membrane and a bright green body during summer. The adults become a bronze-brown colour in the autumn before hibernating throughout winter. Similar species: The southern green shieldbug (Nezara viridula), a non-native species. However, this species has paler wings than the common green shieldbug.
Common Green Shieldbug by Charlie Jackson via Flickr
Parent Bug (Elasmucha grisea)
Distribution: Occurs across the UK but most commonly in south-east and central England. What to look for: This is a medium-sized species with red and beige colouration. Most individuals have a black patch on the scutellum. This species also has a black and white connexivum, the flattened lateral border of the abdomen.
Distribution: Widespread across the south-east and central England. What to look for: This species does not have the characteristic triangular shape and could be confused for a ladybird. It has a black and white piebald pattern, with a grey or translucent wing membrane. Its pronotum is black with a white spot on each ‘shoulder’. Similar species: Rambur’s pied shieldbug (Tritomegas sexmaculatus), although this species has a black wing membrane.
Distribution: Common in southern and central England, with an expanding range. What to look for: This is a bright green species, with a green pronotum, head and scutellum. They have pinkish-red markings on their corium. Their wing membrane is green with a black X-shaped mark. Similar species: The birch and hawthorn shield bugs are visually similar but neither species has the black X-shaped mark on their wing membrane.
Distribution: First recorded in the UK in 2020, only found in two sites in London. What to look for: Also known as the Italian striped bug and the minstrel bug, their body is rounded with bold red and black longitudinal stripes. Their connexium is black with several black, square-shaped spots. Similar species: There are several similar species, such as Graphosoma lineatum, but none are found in the UK.
Distribution: Coastal areas between Devon and Sussex, scattered in other parts of southern England. What to look for: They have a distinctive red and black pattern across their pronotum and abdomen. There are other colour morphs, however, and they can have a white and yellow background with the same black markings. They have a black head with a red, white or yellow ‘mouth’ shape and a black wing membrane. Similar species: The scarlet shieldbug (Eurydema dominulus). They can be distinguished by the pattern on their corium. The ornate shieldbug has a thin black line, two spots and a washed-out area, compared to the thicker line, one or no spots and no washed-out area on the scarlet shieldbug.
Distribution: Widespread across Britain, particularly in the north, and absent from Ireland. What to look for: The blue shieldbug has a deep blue-green metallic sheen, with a dark wing membrane. They resemble leaf beetles, species in the Altica genus, whose larvae they predate upon. This is called aggressive mimicry, where a predator resembles its prey to avoid detection.
Distribution: Widespread across southern Britain. What to look for: This is a straw-coloured species, with brown longitudinal stripes, a distinctive pointed head and a ridged pronotum. Similar species:Mecidea lindbergi is another elongated shield bug but it is a thinner species without brown stripes.
Swifts, swallows and martins are migratory birds, spending the winters in Africa before flying around 3,400 miles to spend summer in the UK. While they are here they spend their days soaring high and feasting on the abundance of flying insects. Their arrival, for many of us, marks the end of winter and announces the arrival of spring and summer.
Although swifts, swallows and martins share some characteristics, they are, upon closer inspection, markedly different. They are roughly similar in size and shape, which can make them difficult to discern between, especially when flying high in the sky. However, as you begin to look closely at their appearance, flight, nesting behaviour and other key characteristics, it is relatively easy to distinguish between them.
Below we share our top tips for identifying swifts, swallows and martins. In this article we have focused on the below species as they are all common and widespread in the UK:
Swifts are amazing birds – they are the longest continually-flying species, spending up to 10 months in the air without landing. They eat, drink, sleep, and mate while flying, only landing to breed. They are almost never seen perching.
Key identification features:
Crescent-shaped, long, curving wings
Forked tail which is much shorter and stouter than the tail of a swallow
Dark brown all over with a small pale patch on their throat, but often appear black against the sky
Swallows are small colourful birds. They are known for their agility as they feed on insects while on the wing. They can often be found flying low to the ground over farmland and open pastures, particularly near water where there are lots of insects. In late summer they can be spotted perching together on telephone wires and power lines, readying themselves to migrate to Africa for the winter.
Key identification features:
Glossy blue upper parts, creamy-white under parts
Red throat and dark red forehead, but from a distance their whole head may appear dark
Long forked tail
They tend to nest in barns, lean-tos and other outbuildings, where they build cup-shaped nests of mud
Chattering call
Can be seen perching on telephone wires or wire fencing
House martins are commonly found in towns and villages, as well as in agricultural areas. They are one of the last of our summer migrants to depart in the autumn. They only eat while on the wing, catching insects as they fly. Their mud cup nests are usually spotted below the eaves of buildings.
Key identification features:
Small birds with glossy blue-black upper parts and pure white under parts
Distinctive white rump, short forked tail and white feathers covering its legs and toes
Sand martins are the smallest of all the European hirundines and one of the first spring migrants to appear. They are agile fliers, feeding mainly over water. They breed in colonies of up to 1000 pairs. Unique to sand martins, these birds burrow holes into sandy, dry vertical banks in sand pits, gravel pits, riverbanks, lakes, streams, railway cuttings, and even in drainpipes in walls and holes in brickwork.
Key identification features:
Dark brown upper parts, with pale tipped feathers. Upper wings, tails and flight feathers are dark brown
Under parts are white with a distinctive brown band across the breast separating the white throat from the white belly
Breast band on young sand martins is less visible and their necks and chins are a reddish brown
Short legs and feet which are dark brown or black
Short forked tail
Tend to swirl and flap rather than glide, and can be found mainly over water
Slugs of Britain and Ireland: Identification, Understanding and Control Paperback | Feb 2014
Slugs and Snails Hardback | December 2016
180ml Collecting Pot
