The South West Marine Ecosystem conference series has been running for more than a decade, bringing together those involved in marine conservation, scientists and managers to share information to improve understanding, future monitoring and management.
This series of webinars on the state of the south-west’s seas presented a number of topics, including cetaceans, climate change, seals, south-west fisheries in 2021, marine and coastal birds, fish and turtles, oceanography and plankton, seashore and seabed, water quality and marine protected areas. These webinars give a well-rounded update on the south-west marine ecosystem, its processes, challenges and successes. We were very pleased to be able to support and attend this series of webinars. Below is a summary of some of the engaging and thought-provoking talks from what was an insightful and educational programme.
Seals:
The Cornwall Seal Group Research Trust (CSGRT), who work to survey, record and process data for the identification and monitoring of seals within the south-west, discussed the current state of the grey and common (harbour) seal populations in the region. The webinar highlighted the threats seals face in south-west waters, including entangling and disturbances. There was a large number of disturbances seen in 2021, with almost 1,500 seals affected. These disturbances can be caused by a number of human activities, including noisy walkers, dogs, beachgoers, kayaks, SUPs, small watercraft, commercial fishing boats and local trip boats. The impact of instances such as entanglement and disturbances are cumulative, having severe consequences on the survivability of seals.
Marine impact deniers, apathy, misconceptions and the general prioritisation of humans over wildlife seriously impact the conservation efforts for seals in the UK, but CSGRT are working to counteract this within the south west. Through conservation activities, censuses and public awareness campaigns, the CSGRT has managed to promote best practices amongst a number of companies to reduce their chances of causing disturbances. They have also been working with Natural England and National Trust to install trail cameras, checked and monitored by a local volunteer, to record the response of seals to the presence of people.
The south-west marine ecosystem is home to a vast number of seabirds. Regionally, there is also a mixed picture of the health of seabird populations, with population recovery and decline in different species across Lundy, the Isles of Scilly, Cornwall, Devon and Dorset.
In 2021, RSPB staff and volunteers reassessed the abundance and distribution of cliff-nesting seabird populations on Lundy, forty years after the initial census in 1981. They found over 27,000 breeding seabirds on the island, mainly auks and Manx shearwaters. In 2000, the seabird population was approximately 6,000, but since the removal of rats in 2004 populations have been able to make an amazing recovery. Historically, however, the area supported around 80,000 birds, suggesting that further conservation efforts and surveys are needed.
In the Isles of Scilly, rat removal on certain islands has also contributed to an increase in some seabird numbers and breeding success, such as for the Manx shearwater. The number of breeding pairs of kittiwakes, however, has been declining over the last few decades, and last year, for the first time in living memory, there were no kittiwakes nesting on the Isles of Scilly.
In Cornwall, Devon and Dorset, certain seabirds are also declining, including a steep decline in the main wintering population of black-necked grebes in Carrick Roads, Cornwall. There is no obvious reason for this decline, as there are fewer disturbances and better management of the area. In Exmouth, Devon, occupied kittiwake nests have been increasing since 2000, but their breeding success has been reducing since 2018, from an average of 1.05 to 0.43 overall across all 3 plots monitored. In Dorset, several species are struggling, even with close management and conservation. On Chesil Beach, only 3 little tern chicks successfully fledged from 48 nests, 155 eggs and 102 chicks.
In the near future, there are several key areas that need addressing to help seabird conservation efforts in the south west. More standardised recording is needed in key estuarine sites, to ensure that there is proper data on populations such as the black-necked grebes. Additionally, there needs to be closer monitoring and increased take-up of nest recording for widespread seabirds, as well as management of possible tourism disturbance.
Seashore and Seabed:
Using information harvested from observations on social media and other sources, Keith Hiscock of the Marine Biological Association presented the state of the seashore and seabed of south-west seas in 2021. By comparing current sightings with previous records, such as the recording of Poecilochaetus serpens in 2021, where it was previously noted in 1902, the persistence of species and biodiversity within these areas can be analysed. They were able to see the gains and losses of species on the seashore and seabed, for example lower numbers of crawfish (Palinurus elephas) in areas where significant numbers had been seen in the last few years, and increases in abundance and extent of other species, including Zostera noltii and Z. marina.
They were also able to note the presence of new species within areas of the south west, including the Mediterranean feather duster worm (Sabella spallanzanii), and the increasing abundance and extent of non-native species, such as the Pacific oyster (Magallana gigas). The number of non-native species within south west waters has continued to grow, with the range and abundance of some species already present also increasing. The very slight increase in the presence of warm water species suggests that ocean warming is having an effect, but it is not having a marked impact on biota composition. Overall, this webinar called for a better process for the systematic recording of events and change in south-west seas.
Our thoughts
This year’s webinar programme was an enlightening insight into the ecosystem of the south west, as well as the ongoing conservation efforts undertaken by multiple different groups and volunteers across the region. For those who were unable to attend the live lectures this year, recordings of each are available on the South West Marine Ecosystems youtube channel. Further information about conferences can be found on their website, along with an archive of their previous conferences.
Grassland habitats are areas of vegetation dominated by grasses. Similarly to heathland, grassland can be divided into lowland and upland (above 200m). The type of sediment can also be used to classify grassland habitats, such as calcareous (lime-rich soils), acidic (sands, gravels and siliceous rocks) and neutral (clay and loam soils). They are often maintained by human intervention, through mowing, fertilising, drainage, burning or chemical treatments, as well as livestock grazing. They can also be maintained by natural processes such as grazing or browsing, or due to exposed conditions at the coast or at high altitudes where shrub and tree growth is limited.
Grassland can also be separated into unimproved, semi-improved and improved. This refers to the amount of agricultural interference in the habitat. Improved grasslands have undergone high modification or intensive agriculture, and thus typically have fewer species with a limited variety of grasses and flowering plants. (white clover, perennial ryegrass and other agricultural species usually cover more than 50% of improved grasslands). These habitats are covered more in-depth in another blog: The NHBS Introduction to Habitats: Farmland.
Semi-improved grassland is a transition category between improved and unimproved grasslands that have undergone some modification through the use of, for example, fertilisers, herbicides and grazing. These habitats have a reduced range of plant species compared to unimproved grassland but a wider diversity than improved grassland.
Unimproved grassland, also termed species-rich, has not been artificially fertilised, ploughed or reseeded. Grassland habitats are considered to be species-rich if they have more than fifteen plant species per square metre, a wildflower and sedge cover of more than 30% (excluding creeping buttercup, white clover and invasive weed species), and less than 10% cover of white clover and perennial ryegrass. Species-rich grassland habitats not only support a large number of flora species but also many fauna species such as invertebrates and birds. They improve and maintain the health of soils, protect against soil erosion, sequester carbon and provide food for browsing and grazing species such as deer and livestock.
Other examples of grassland habitats include lowland meadows, upland hay meadows, montane grasslands, purple moor-grass and rush pasture, marshy grassland, wet grassland and calaminarian grassland.
What species can you find here?
Flora
The number and type of flora species found in grasslands depends on the type and health of the habitat. Unimproved, species-rich habitats can support a huge variety of grasses, wildflowers and other vegetation. They all provide food and shelter for the many different fauna species that can be found in grasslands.
Grassland is dominated by grass cover and the species of grasses present can depend on factors such as soil type, altitude, level of agricultural improvement and maintenance routine. Crested dog’s-tail is found in many grassland habitats. It is a wiry, tufted grass that grows between 15–60 cm tall and is a traditional grazing grass. It is a common species that prefers lowland grassland and is the foodplant of many caterpillar species, such as the large skipper (Ochlodes sylvanus).
Another grass species is quaking-grass, with purple and green heart-shaped flower heads on delicate stems that appear to ‘quake’ or quiver in the breeze. Resembling miniature hops, this plant is also called totter grass, dithery dock, jiggle-joggles, earthquakes and toddling grass. The seeds of this species are a source of food for many bird species, such as yellowhammers and house sparrows.
Grasses are important foraging plants and their leaves and grain are eaten by a wide variety of species, such as small mammals, livestock, deer and many invertebrates. They also provide shelter and nesting materials, often used as the base or weaving material for many bird nests. Grasses can also help to stabilise the soil.
There are thousands of wildflower species in grassland habitats, providing an important nectar and pollen source for many invertebrate species. Cowslip favours dry, calcareous grassland, but is also found in woodland, hedgerows and road verges. It flowers from April to May and its yellow, bell-shaped flowers are encased in a long, green tube-shaped calyx and grow in clusters. The flowers all face one side of the plant and have five petals, each with a small indent on the top edge. Cowslip is particularly important as it is an early food source for many pollinators.
Another example of a wildflower species found in grassland habitats is eyebright. There are multiple eyebright species, including many hybrids, and identification in the field is often difficult. They’re semi-parasitic, feeding on the nutrients of the roots of nearby grasses. This can help control the spread of more aggressive grass species, allowing other wildflowers to grow.
Fungi form an important part of grassland habitats, playing a vital role by breaking down organic matter in the soil and facilitating the cycling of nutrients. They also food for many different species, including insects, mammals, gastropods like slugs and snails, nematodes, bacteria and even other fungi.
Waxcaps are associated with unimproved grasslands that have a short sward and are nutrient-poor, moss-rich and long-established, and occur in both upland and lowland areas. Due to changes in agricultural practices, these habitats have been declining in Europe, and conservation efforts have been made to protect them. These waxcap grasslands are also home to other fungi species including agarics, clavarioid fungi and earthtongues.
Sometimes called the scarlet hood or righteous red waxy cap, the scarlet waxcap can be found across the Northern Hemisphere. They’re found in fields, open woodland, lawns and roadside but they prefer unimproved grassland, where no fertiliser, chemical treatment or ploughing has occurred.
This species is an upright fungus consisting of tubular, unbranched basidiocarps (the fruiting body). They are white with browning at the tips and are very fragile, with smooth, soft and somewhat brittle flesh. They also occur in waxcap grassland and other old, unimproved grasslands.
Shaggy Inkcap (Coprinus comatus)
Mature: Lukas Large via Flickr (cropped). Immature: Simon via Flickr
This fungus, also known as lawyer’s wig, is very common in parklands, grasslands and lawns, with a tall, shaggy cap that begins white before turning browner and grey with age. The cap opens to a bell shape as the gills turn from white to pink and then black, dissolving from the base of the cap until it’s almost completely gone. This dissolving fruitbody breaks down into a black fluid that is full of fungal spores, aiding dispersal. This fluid was historically used as an ink substitute.
Fauna
Diverse grasslands can provide habitats for a wide variety of wildlife. There is a lot of cross over between grassland and farmland species, due to much agricultural land being improved grassland habitats. Grassland is home to several species of birds, such as ground-nesting species and birds of prey. They also support small mammals, reptiles and many grazing and browsing species, such as deer, rabbits and wild horses. They are also important habitats for a huge number of invertebrates, with wildflower-rich habitats supporting many pollinator species.
This common and widespread species feeds on grasses and other plants. They prefer dry habitats and are found in grassland, heathland and agricultural areas, but tend to occur in higher densities in ungrazed areas. Many invertebrate species play important roles in grassland habitats, allowing air penetration and nutrient cycling in the soils and the breakdown of dead organic material. They are also prey for species such as birds, reptiles and some small mammals.
Marbled white (Melanargia galathea)
Topside: xulescu_g via FlickrUnderside: Peter Stenzel via Flickr
Butterflies are another group of invertebrates that are common in grassland habitats, particularly species-rich grasslands, due to the presence of many food plants and shelter provided by scattered scrub. Although some species can be found in multiple different grassland types, the habitat can sometimes be characterised by the presence of different butterfly and moth assemblages.
The marbled white is found in unimproved grassland with tall sward, as well as gardens, road verges and railway embankments, and is widespread in southern Britain. Its range has been expanding northwards and eastwards. Its caterpillars rely on red fescue (Festuca rubra) as a foodplant, as well as sheep’s fescue (F. ovina), Yorkshire-fog (Holcus lanatus) and tor-grass (Brachypodium pinnatum).
Beetles often make up a large percentage of invertebrate assemblages in grassland habitats. They play many important roles in grassland ecosystems, as plant feeders, prey, predators, parasites and scavengers, recycling nutrients from organic matter both into the soil and through the food chain. Bloody nosed beetles are black, flightless beetles that are often found in grasslands and coastal areas, particularly in the south and central UK. Their common name comes from their peculiar defence mechanism. They secrete foul-tasting, bright red hemolymph (a fluid analogous to blood) from their mouth when threatened.
Many birds nest in grassland habitats, such as vulnerable wading birds (lapwing and curlew) and the skylark. A small bird, the skylark has a streaky brown plumage with a small crest. It is listed on the Birds of Conservation Concern 4 (BoCC 4) red list due to its recent population declines. These declines have been associated with agricultural intensification and the resultant reduction of grassland availability and suitability of farmland habitats for breeding and foraging. Birds such as the skylark use grassland as foraging grounds, feeding on seeds and insects. They are prey for other species such as birds of prey and foxes.
Several predator species utilise grassland habitats, namely foxes, weasels, stoats and some birds of prey. A number of birds of prey use grasslands to hunt for small mammals and other prey species. Kestrels predate almost exclusively on small mammals, such as voles, shrews and mice. They also occasionally prey on birds, particularly fledglings during the early weeks of summer, as well as bats, lizards and some invertebrates.
The UK has six deer species, although only two are native: red and roe deer. Fallow deer are thought to have been introduced by the Normans and the three other species, Reeves’ muntjac, Chinese water deer and sika, were introduced in the 19th and early 20th centuries. For more information on these species, check out our guide to UK deer identification.
Roe deer are small deer, with a reddish-brown colour during summer and a paler or black colouration in winter. They have a large white rump that becomes less obvious during the winter. Many grassland habitats are maintained by grazing and browsing, where species such as deer feed on the shoots of trees and scrub species that would otherwise encroach on the habitat. In many countries, deer populations are controlled by predators such as wolves, to help reduce the extent of their impact on grasslands. Other habitats are then able to develop, allowing the expansion of woodland, shrubland and heathland. The UK does not have any large predators anymore, however, therefore deer populations are managed through culling to prevent overgrazing.
Species-rich grasslands are highly threatened habitats, as most grassland in the UK is improved or semi-improved. The main threats to grassland habitats are agricultural improvement and development. Ploughing, re-sowing, intensive grazing or mowing and heavy use of fertilisers can fundamentally change soil type and quality. This, along with clearing for development, reduces the quality and area of habitat, which would impact the number and range of flora and fauna they can support. Heavy recreational use can also impact grasslands, particularly fragile vegetation.
Another threat is encroachment from scrub and trees because of abandonment, incorrect or lax maintenance or intentional efforts to increase woodland cover. Woodland is often prioritised over grassland (that is not used for agriculture), as it is seen as more environmentally important, particularly in relation to carbon sequestration. The consequent fragmentation of grasslands is a threat in itself, as habitat patches that are too small or isolated may no longer be able to support viable populations of some species.
Areas of significance
Grassland can be found across the UK but there are some areas of significance such as the Culm grasslands and Rhôs pastures (purple moor grass and rush pastures), East Anglian Breckland and areas of the new forest (lowland dry acid grassland) and the Keen of Hamar in Shetland (calaminarian grassland).
A new study has found plants that humans don’t need will ‘lose’ in the face of humanity. Around 46,292 species out of the 86,592 vascular plants studied were categorised as ‘losers’ or ‘potential losers’, many of which are not considered to be useful to humans. Due to this, plant communities of the future will likely be more homogenised. The findings cover less than 30% of all known plant species, highlighting that more work is needed in this field.
A project by the environmental group ‘The Nature Conservancy’ aims to undo the ‘degradation’ of a Kentucky stream. The Long Branch stream was straightened decades ago, altering the flow and natural biodiversity along with increasing erosion. Contractors had previously re-created the natural bends, pools and riffles of the stream, placing rocks, tree root wads and burlap material at some places along the banks. Workers are now planting trees along a section of the stream with the hopes of providing better habitat for a small fish called the Buck darter, which is found only in this watershed.
The UN has launched biodiversity talks on a deal to protect nature. The negotiations began in Geneva on Monday with the deal due for approval later this year. Almost 200 countries plan to adopt a global framework to safeguard nature by mid-century, with a milestone of 30% protected by 2030.
A Squat lobster was seen on Shackleton’s Endurance ship, potentially the first Munidopsis species recorded in the Weddell Sea. It is hard to be certain due to the resolution of the released images but Dr Huw Griffiths from the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) suggested the animal could be from the Munidopsis genus, which contains over 200 known species.
A number of previously locally extinct mammals in the Sturt National Park, New South Wales, are now thriving in their feral-free zones, and researchers are amazed by how quickly they have repopulated. With the exclusion of feral cats from enclosures, mulgaras, bilbies and Shark Bay bandicoots have all seen population increases since their translocations. There are also plans to reintroduce another species this year, the golden bandicoot. While this is promising news, ANU ecologist professor David Lindenmayer stated that, while the feral-free zones are helping to conserve animals, both state and federal governments need to do more, including increasing funding and ensuring collaboration between scientists, conservation groups and politicians.
A new report from IPPC warns that many of the impacts of global warming are now “irreversible”. Four months on from COP26, this is the second of three reviews from the world’s foremost body of climate researchers, and looks at the causes, impacts and solutions of climate change. It shows that climate change is impacting humans and other species far worse than previously indicated, with more than 40% of the world’s population “highly vulnerable” to climate. However, authors of the report say that there is still a small amount of time left to avoid the very worst.
Countryside Management Association (CMA) is the largest organisation in England, Wales and Northern Ireland that supports the work of conservation, access and recreation professionals in the natural greenspace and countryside sector. They also have close ties to the Scottish Countryside Rangers Association (SCRA), Scotland’s own association.
Through networking, training and continuing professional development, CMA supports and champions the development of staff, students and volunteers that are involved in the management, interpretation and public enjoyment of natural greenspaces and the countryside. They promote the value and importance of these areas and their management to the general public, government and other organisations, while also providing organisations who are involved in management with helpful and relevant information.
Last year, the CMA ran a photo competition celebrating the work of professionals in the field and shared inspirational photos of staff and volunteers undertaking work to protect, enhance and interpret these important areas. Participants were encouraged to submit images of work involving anything from habitat management, estate work, and wildlife survey and monitoring to leading events and school visits, and engaging with visitors and volunteers. The competition ran from May 2021 to 7th January 2022. We teamed up with CMA to offer some fantastic prizes: a £100 voucher for first prize and £50 vouchers for two runners-up.
Results
Winner: Robert Ballard
The winning entry was taken by Robert Ballard, a ranger at Stover Country Park near Newton Abbot in Devon. His black and white image is a portrait of several volunteers undertaking some pond maintenance. Ponds and lakes are important habitats, supporting a wide range of species. Maintaining and enhancing them has a number of ecological benefits, including increasing wildlife diversity, improving water quality, reducing pond edge or lake shoreline erosion and creating better habitats for aquatic species.
First runner up: Jo Maddox
First runner up was Jo Maddox’s image of conservation work with a city background. CMA liked this image as they are currently seeking to promote and represent greater diversity in their membership, and to highlight urban greenspace management in particular. Urban green spaces, such as gardens, parks and woodlands, provide a vital habitat for wildlife, as well as numerous benefits to people living in urban areas. The management of these areas can help to improve and maintain ecosystem health and biodiversity.
Second runner up: Aam Hersey
Second runner up was Aam Hersey’s socially distanced hedge workers, which CMA thought was of the moment. Hedgerows are dynamic and invaluable habitats, providing food, shelter and breeding sites for species such as yellowhammers, great tits and dunnocks. Hedgerows are made up of a wide range of flora groups, often thought as different layers, including the shrub layer, tree layer, base, margin and ditch. Woody species like hawthorn, blackthorn and hazel make up the tree layer. Smaller woody species, shrubs and climbers, for example bramble, honeysuckle and ivy, are part of the shrub layer, which can also include young trees. The base, margin or ditch parts of a hedgerow can be bare ground, grass or be occupied by wildflowers such as herb robert, wood sage and red campion or thick herbaceous vegetation like cow parsley and common hogweed. Each of these components can support different wildlife, therefore hedgerow management is vital to maintain and promote this biodiversity.
Countryside Management Association
For more information on Countryside Management Assocation, please visit https://countrysidemanagement.org.uk/. Here you will find information on membership, training and events.
Tree surgeons in Barcombe save endangered bird’s habitat. The company tasked with trimming treetops at Barcombe’s disused railway station in East Sussex worked with Barcombe Community Wildlife Group to help maintain the important breeding ground for endangered nightingales. The tree surgeons enhanced the habitat for nightingales and the insects they feed upon along the 33,000-volt 3km route, while still maintaining the power network. The trees and surrounding vegetation were recycled into woodchip mulch to use in the soil, and wood stacks were also made for the area to encourage wildlife.
Grey wolves have had their federal protections restored across much of the US. In 2020, the U.S Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) decided to delist wolves from the Endangered Species Act. However, it was suggested by wolf advocates that the USFWS failed to show that wolf populations could be sustainably managed by states in the Midwest and parts of the West without federal protection. A US District Judge stated that the USFWS had not considered species-wide recovery and instead focused on individual recovered populations, such as in the Northern Rockies. Thus, he ruled to immediately restore federal protection to wolves in the Midwest and parts of the West.
Paignton Zoo is freezing the DNA of endangered animals in hopes to save them from extinction. In a project called “Noah’s Ark of DNA”, the zoo has frozen samples from 82 species, including mouse deer, Humboldt penguins and panther chameleons, with the aim of collecting samples from hundreds of the world’s 40,000 endangered species. This is one of several DNA preservation projects in the UK, acting as a potential safeguard for many species.
A study has found that air pollution makes it tough for pollinators to stop and smell the flowers. Researchers have found that common, ground-level air pollutants react with floral scents, leading to reduced pollination. The presence of nitrogen oxides and ozone resulted in up to 90% fewer flower visits, as well as one-third less pollination than in a smog-free field. The concentrations of pollutants used in the study were less than half the average levels of air pollutants considered safe under US law.
Invasive non-native species cost the UK approximately £122 million per year and are a huge driver of biodiversity decline worldwide. There are a surprising number of non-native reptile and amphibian species in the UK, from non-breeding released pet terrapins to established populations of midwife toads, although the impact of some of these species on our native wildlife is not yet fully understood.
The first part of the 2022 Herpetofauna Workers Meeting included a number of talks that discussed the latest research on introduced reptile and amphibian species in the UK, including the Aesculapian Snake in Wales and the Alpine Newt in Northern Ireland. We were pleased to be able to attend and take part in this event again this year, and below is summary of some of the fascinating talks from what was an interesting and informative afternoon.
The Aesculapian Snake
The Aesculapian Snake Zamenis longissimus is a non-venomous species found across southern and central Europe, with relic populations in northern Europe. Although not native to the UK, there are two known introduced populations, one on the grounds of the Welsh Mountain Zoo in Colwyn Bay, Wales, and another along Regents Canal in London. There is also a possible third population in Bridgend in South Wales, but this is unconfirmed as of yet. Tom Major from the University of Bangor is using radio telemetry to study the population at Colwyn Bay to understand how this species is surviving, and he has gained some incredible insights into the ecology of the Aesculapian Snake over the past year.
While tracking nine adult individuals he found that on average the snakes travel the distance of approximately three and a half rugby pitches, and tend to visit one particular place where they stay for roughly four days before setting off again. This seemed to be anywhere that was warm and dry, from a chapel roof to a compost heap. By the end of the tracking period four individuals were still alive. Buzzards, stoats and cars were the reasons behind a few of the deaths, but one interesting cause was cannibalism – one tracked snake was recorded being eaten by another tracked individual, the first known occurrence of this behaviour in this species.
Turtle Tally
Reptiles and amphibians are becoming increasingly popular pets, but a lack of knowledge of their complicated care requirements or an unexpected change in an owner’s circumstances, amongst other reasons, can lead to the intentional release of these exotic animals into the wild. In order to gain an understanding of the distribution and impact of released pet terrapins in the UK in particular, Turtle Tally UK is a nationwide citizen science project that calls for the general public to submit their own terrapin sightings and photos. During her talk, Turtle Tally project lead Suzie Simpson shared some of the findings since the project began in 2019. Each year since has seen an increase in the number of sightings submitted, and hotspots have become apparent in London, Cardiff, Swansea and Liverpool. Yellow-bellied and Red-eared Slider were amongst the most frequently recorded species, and generally only one individual was recorded per sighting.
Red-Eared Slider by Jim, the Photographer via Flickr
When they are out of water, terrapins are usually spotted on logs, rocks and even litter – any raised platform in a water body that they can use for basking. This also includes the nests of waterbirds, but so far there has been no evidence that these terrapins show signs of aggression to waterbirds, or that they predate on chicks. Some species, such as snappers and soft shells, would be more of a concern, however, and the Turtle Tally UK project aims to continue to collect data to further our understanding about the impacts of released pet terrapins on native wildlife. Egg laying has been observed on occasion, but due to the UK’s cooler climate, reproduction is very rarely successful. However climate change could result in more suitable conditions for breeding in the future.
The Alpine Newt in Northern Ireland
The Smooth Newt is Ireland’s only native species of newt and, with its distinctive orange belly and spotted pattern, it is easily recognisable. In September 2020, a strange looking newt was found in Northern Ireland during a bat survey. With a similarly orange belly, but without the spotted markings on its underside and darker in colour, this particular individual did not match the description of a Smooth Newt. It was soon confirmed that this was an Alpine Newt, a species found in Europe but not native to the UK. The discovery of this species is a particular concern as the Alpine Newt is a known vector of chytrid fungus. Rob Gondola, Ryan Boyle and Éinne Ó Cathasaigh provided an update of the consequent Alpine Newt surveys that took place during the following summer in 2021. Thankfully, all the swabs that were taken to test for diseases have come back negative, and they were able to determine the presence of two established populations. Further surveys and testing are hoped to continue in 2022.
There were a number of other talks throughout the conference, from the ongoing study of midwife toads in the UK (another non-native species that was introduced over 100 years ago) to the impact of climate change on UK herpetofauna. This was an enlightening and fascinating afternoon and we look forward to Part 2 of the 2022 Herpetofauna Workers Meeting later on in the year. The date and location of the event will be confirmed at a future date, but any details will be made available on the ARC or ARG UK website. A recording of Part 1 will also be made available – keep an eye on the ARC website for further details.
February marks the approach of the busy spring survey season and is the perfect time to take stock and make sure you have everything you need for your upcoming fieldwork.
To avoid disrupting any survey work later on in the year, we recommend that you take the time now to inspect all technical equipment for any faults. This will allow you to organise any necessary repairs in plenty of time.
We also suggest organising and ordering any equipment you may still require ahead of time, including accessories such as SD cards and batteries.
To help you get equipped for your surveys, we have compiled a helpful list of the key upcoming surveys that are due to begin in the next few months, together with any essential equipment that they require.
February
Badger bait surveying is best undertaken from late February to late April. Use a peanut and syrup mix with different colour badger bait marking pellets for each sett.
February is also a key time to survey bat hibernation roosts. We stock all of the main passive bat detectors currently on the market, as well as a comprehensive range of endoscopes.
March
Reptile felts or corrugated refugia for the survey of reptiles should be put out a few weeks before surveys start to allow them to ‘bed down’. Refugia inspections tend to begin in March or April depending on weather conditions.
Newt surveys start in mid-March and continue through to June. We offer newt bottle-traps as either whole or pre-cut bottles. Bamboo canes that are used to hold the bottle-traps in place are available to purchase separately.
eDNA surveys for Great Crested Newts have a relatively short survey window between 15th April and 30th June. We recommend organising and booking your dates and kits in advance.
The Song Meter 2 range of passive bat recorders from Wildlife Acoustics
Please note that some of the species mentioned above are protected by law in the UK. Any survey work on protected species must be undertaken by a licenced ecologist. Different levels of licence are required for different survey and mitigation methods. For more information, please visit: https://www.gov.uk/guidance/wildlife-licences.
If you have any queries you can contact our customer services team on 01803 865913 or via email at customer.services@nhbs.com.
River pollution is a significant issue in the UK; many rivers are contaminated with sewage, agricultural and road run-off, microplastics and litter. One council is now attempting to protect one river from this by looking to grant it the ‘Freedom of the City’, usually granted to people and organisations to recognise their contributions to a city. Norwich City Council hopes that this honorary title, in combination with other new measures, such as developing planning policies to protect biodiversity, will protect River Wensum from pollution and invasive species. The council will also be asking Anglian Water for evidence on what is being done to prevent sewage spills.
A new leafhopper has been discovered on a student field trip to Kibale National Park, in west Uganda. Dr Alvin Helden of Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge named the insect Phlogis kibalensis and said it’s from an “incredibly rare” group of leafhoppers, whose “biology remains almost completely unknown”. The last recorded sighting of a species from the Phlogis genus was in the Central African Republic more than 50 years ago, in 1969.
After the devastating bushfires between 2019 and 2020, some koala populations in Australia were on the brink of extinction. Now, the Australian federal government has committed a further $50 million for the next four years to aid koala population recovery, bringing the total federal investment to $74 million since 2019. This funding will also go towards habitat and health protection projects and extending the national koala monitoring program.
A new species of angel shark (Squatina mapama) has been identified in the Central American Caribbean. Angel sharks are flat-bodied, bottom-dwelling species that resemble stingrays. The species was identified through genetic analysis, as it’s a cryptic shark species: they’re morphologically indistinguishable from one or more other Squatina species. S. mapama, whose suggested common name is the ‘small-crested angel shark’, is the fourth new Squatina species to be identified in the last decade.
Foulness Point saltmarsh by Jeremy Halls via Flickr
Saltmarsh, the next habitat in our NHBS Introduction to Habitats series, is an area of the extreme upper shore of sheltered coasts that is inundated with seawater periodically during high tides. However, saltmarshes can also occur further inland, such as along tidal rivers. These habitats are usually angiosperm-dominated areas of vegetation that can develop on a variety of sediment types, including sand and mudflats. They often display striking vegetation zonation patterns across elevational gradients, relating to the degree or frequency of immersion in seawater. This means that, usually, more salt-tolerant species (halophytes) will be found lower down the shore on the seaward side, while less tolerant species would be more likely situated further up on the landward side. These zones are broadly referred to as low marsh and high marsh, but can be further split into an initial intertidal sand- or mudflat, a pioneer zone, lower marsh, middle marsh and the upper marsh zone. These most tolerant species are usually the pioneer species, growing in mud- or sandflats – this marks the beginning of ecological succession in saltmarshes; these plants stabillise the substrate, and add oxygen and other nutrients to the saltmarsh, allowing other plants to establish.
This is a generally well-studied habitat, which is fully classified by the UK National Vegetation Classifications, with 26 types defined. Saltmarshes are made up of a network of creeks and pans (pools), creating sections of land and water. These creeks are developed by the growth of pioneer plant species that grow on raised areas. This concentrates any water flow into channels, which deepen to form creeks as the saltmarsh develops. These areas can be very productive habitats, as the muddy channels can contain sediment rich in decaying matter, supporting a wide diversity of species such as crabs, shrimps and snails, providing food for wading birds and other predators.
What species can you find here?
Flora
Saltmarsh grass (Puccinellia sp.)
Reflexed Saltmarsh-grass – Puccinellia distans subsp. distans by Gertjan van Noord via Flickr
Puccinellia, also known as saltgrass, is a genus of grass that grows in wet environments, often in saline conditions. Some of the saltmarsh grasses within this genus, such as common saltmarsh-grass (Puccinellia maritima), can dominate saltmarsh plant communities, creating dense tufts of hummocks. They can also often be found in pioneer communities, such as in recently disturbed or forming areas of saltmarsh. Some species can grow to quite a height, some between 60cm and 80cm, and provide a refuge for many different animal species.
This flowering plant, also known as herbaceous seepweed, is a yellow-green shrub with succulent leaves and green flowers. It grows in aquatic, terrestrial and wetland habitats, but is mainly found in salt marshes and along seashores, reaching up to about 35cm in height. It’s an important habitat-building species, as it captures mud and other sediment, and stabilises the saltmarsh.
Also known as Tripolium pannonicum, Aster pannonicus or seashore aster, this flowering plant is mainly confined to saltmarshes and estuaries, although it’s occasionally found on cliffs and inland salt works. Sea asters are a short-lived species that can form dense patches. They’re also known as Michaelmas daisies, as their late flowering period is between July and October. Thus, they’re an important source of nectar for several late butterfly species, such as the red admiral.
There are several different species with the common name sea purslane, but this species is a greyish-green shrub found in salt marshes and coastal dunes, usually flooded at high tide. They’re evergreen and contain important nutrients such as zinc and iron. This species can also be used as a bioindicator and biomonitor for mercury contamination in saltmarshes, as it accumulates in the roots and (at lower levels) in the leaves.
This species also has several botanical and common synonyms, including Obione portulacoides, Atriplex portulacoides, purslane orach and lesser shrubby orach.
Fauna
Saltmarshes are important breeding grounds for birds, such as waders and waterfowl, and feeding grounds for overwintering or migrant birds, including wheatear (Oenanthe oenanthe), redstart (Phoenicurus phoenicurus) and goldcrest (Regulus regulus). They also provide nursery sites for many fish species and support a large number of invertebrates.
The variety of habitats and conditions within saltmarshes supports a diverse range of invertebrates, including the saltmarsh plume moth. This distinctive species is found in saltmarshes in the south and east of England, with its larvae feeding on species such as sea-lavender (Limonium vulgare) and rock sea-lavender (Limonium binervosum). They feed on the underside of the leaves, hibernating close to the base of the plant until it can restart feeding in spring. Invertebrate species can be used as indicator species for the level of grazing a saltmarsh has undergone. For example, Agdistis bennetii is an indicator species for ungrazed saltmarshes, as they show a significant preference for these areas and are, therefore, more likely to be found in higher numbers than in grazed areas. This is most likely due to the larvae’s reliance on only Limonium species as food plants, which may be reduced or removed with grazing.
Three-spined stickleback by Gilles San Martin via Flickr
The three-spined stickleback is a small predatory fish that inhabits fresh, salt and brackish water and is very tolerant of changes in salinity. With a preference for slow-moving water with areas of vegetation, it can often be found in ponds, lakes, ditches and marshes. These fish have a brown back with silverish sides and belly. As their name suggests, they have three spines on their back. Males develop bright green flanks and a red throat and belly during spring (as pictured). They hunt invertebrates, including worms, crustaceans, insect larvae and small snails. They’re also prey for several species, including larger fish, such as trout, pike and perch, and birds, such as herons and kingfishers. Eggs, fry and juveniles are also prey for macroinvertebrates, such as dragonfly naiads.
Shore crabs are found along all shores of Britain and Ireland and inhabit a wide variety of shoreline habitats, from the intertidal zome down to a depth of 60m. They’re especially abundant in salt marshes and estuaries, feeding on algae, plants, arthropods, annelids (worms), molluscs and carrion. They’re also prey for some predatory fish and birds, including gulls, cormorants and certain duck species. Herbivory by certain crab species is thought to be impacting saltmarshes in certain areas. For example, bank die-offs of cordgrass species (Spartina spp.) in the saltmarshes of Cape Cod, Massachusetts has been attributed to the native purple marsh crab (Sesarma reticulatum), as dense populations are leading to intense grazing. Other crabs, however, such as the tunnelling mud crab (Helice crassa) found in New Zealand, are thought to be ecosystem engineers, as their burrows help to transport dissolved oxygen into the surrounding anoxic sediments, helping to promote nitrogen cycling bacteria.
Ragworm (Hediste diversicolor)
Ragworm by Dr Mary Gillham Archive Project via Flickr
Polychaete worms, also known as bristle worms, are a class of annelid worms that are generally found in marine environments. These species have pairs of fleshy protrusions on each segment of their body, resembling legs. Ragworms live in burrows and are widespread and common, often found in coastal or estuarine intertidal zones. They’re a key food source for many species of birds and fish, such as pied avocet (Recurvirostra avosetta), curlew (Numenius arquata), bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica), grey plover (Pluvialis squatarola), common sole (Solea solea) and European plaice (Pleuronectes platessa). These polychaetes have also been found to have deleterious effects on saltmarsh establishment, as well as seagrass meadows. This is thought to be due to ragworms pulling the leaves of cordgrass (Spartina anglica) into their burrows to feed while their burrowing activities is thought to reduce establishment rates due to its disturbance of the substrate.
This small, spiral-shelled snail is found along the British and Irish coastline. It is typically found in muddy sand, estuaries and saltmarshes, although it also occurs in lagoons and seagrass beds. Also referred to as Peringia ulvae or the laver spire shell, this species is most common in the upper half of the intertidal zone, feeding on detritus, microflora and seaweeds. They can be quite abundant across saltmarshes, therefore providing a major food source for multiple predators, including flatfish, such as common dab (Limanda limanda), and overwintering waterfowl, such as shelducks (Tadorna tadorna).
Overwintering birds
Bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica) by Laurie Boyle via Flickr
Saltmarshes are key habitats for many ducks, geese and waders, including the bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica). While some non-breeding individuals can be seen in the UK in summer, the highest numbers generally occur between November and February. They use their long bills and legs to pick their way through estuaries, mudflats, sandy shores, saltmarshes and other wetland habitats, mainly eating worms, shellfish, marine snails and shrimps. For more information on the other birds that utilise these habitats, check out our identification guides on UK ducks, geese and waders.
Several mammal and reptile species also utilise saltmarshes, such as Sika deer, adders, otters and stoats. Check out our identification guides for UK Deer, Reptile and Mustelid species for more detailed information about these.
Threats
The main threats to multiple coastal habitats are erosion, pollution, climate change and development. Sea level rise, combined with development, can cause a coastal squeeze – where saltmarsh habitats are unable to ‘move’ in response to changing tide levels, therefore they’re ‘squeezed’ between the rising sea and developed areas, such as where coastal defences have been built. Many coastal habitats are low-lying and are therefore vulnerable to flooding and are where flood defences are most likely to be placed. Aside from contributing to the coastal squeeze, this changes the relationship between the land and the sea, impeding natural inundation and sediment supply and the dynamics necessary to maintain the saltmarsh habitats.
Erosion from wave action, adverse weather, disturbance, farming and grazing can lead to a reduction in stabilising plants and the rich substrate to be washed away. This reduces the habitats ability to support its diverse wildlife and reduces its suitability as a breeding ground for birds. However, carefully managed, low-intensity grazing can maintain saltmarshes, as it increases vegetation patchiness, reduces succession by woody species and, therefore, increases biodiversity.
Development, such as urban development, ports, harbours and land-claim for agriculture and industry, can threaten these habitats, although this is far less common now. Other threats include pollution, through run-off, litter, oil, heavy metals, air pollution and plastic pollution; invasive species, such as Spartina anglica (cordgrass), which can outcompete native plant species and dominate habitats; and overfishing, which can reduce top predators, leading to a collapse in saltmarsh ecosystems.
Hopes for the future
Protecting the remaining saltmarsh habitats, as well as restoring and creating new habitat areas, is an important part of conserving and increasing our biodiversity. Conservation often involves livestock grazing, site management, conservation designations, strict development planning policies, scientifically informed fishing quotas and public campaigns for litter picking, personal responsibility and reducing foot traffic on degraded areas. Restoration efforts usually focus on removing sea defences to restore the natural tidal influences such as inundation, removing invasive species and planting pioneer species to aid the return of natural saltmarsh communities. However, habitat restoration is a difficult and expensive process, and it can take many years to establish. They also may not always be successful, therefore the monitoring and study of saltmarshes are often a key part of restoration projects.
Areas of significance
Barnaby’s Sands and Burrows Marsh Nature Reserve, in Lancashire, which contains an extensive area of ungrazed saltmarsh.
Welwick Saltmarsh, East Riding of Yorkshire, is a sizable area of saltmarsh habitat on the bank of the River Humber, which hosts thousands of wading birds, as well as raptors and owls.
South Efford Marsh, a nature reserve in Devon, includes a patchwork of saltmarshes and grazing fields next to the River Avon.
Rye Harbour Nature Reserve, East Sussex, consists of a mosaic of coastal habitats including saltmarshes, shingle ridges, scrub and woodland.
Fingringhoe Wick, Essex, is a Site of Special Scientific Interest that hosts up to 200 species of birds and 350 species of flowering plants.
West Williamston, is a reserve in Wales made up of tidal creeks, saltmarsh, muddy shores, limestone rock outcrops and woodland. This site is frequented by a large number of waders and waterfowl, including little grebe, shelduck and curlew, as well as other birds such as tawny owl and wren.
Solway Firth is mostly tidal rivers, estuaries, mud and sand flats and lagoons, but there are also salt marshes, salt pastures and steppes. The saltmarshes of Solway Firth stretch along the coast of north Cumbria as well as crossing the border into Scotland. Over 70% of Scottish saltmarshes are within SSSIs.
The South West Marine Ecosystem conference series has been running for more than a decade, bringing together those involved in marine conservation, scientists and managers to share information to improve understanding, future monitoring and management.
