As global temperatures rise due to climate change, blue lakes in North America and Europe are likely to turn from blue to green-brown. This is mainly due to changes in algal blooms and sediments which are affected by temperature and precipitation. As well as the purely aesthetic impacts on local culture and recreation, there are important implications for water quality, particularly for lakes that are used as drinking water sources.
An international study looking at the future role of termites in ecosystems has determined that their role could be much larger in a warming environment. These wood-consuming insects are important for breaking down wood and contributing to the earth’s carbon cycle, but their activities are currently concentrated mainly in the tropics. With an increase in global temperatures, they are likely to expand their ranges much further north and south.
From a close look at two very different restoration projects in Yorkshire to the eradication of Japanese knotweed without the use of herbicides, the Autumn issue of Conservation Land Management (CLM) covers a variety of topics and themes relevant to those involved in managing land for nature. Below is a summary of the articles featured in this latest issue.
The first of the Yorkshire-based articles, authored by Sarah Lonsdale of the North York Moors National Park Authority (NYMNPA), describes the River Esk Restoration Project. The River Esk flows through the North York Moors and is the only river in Yorkshire to support populations of the rare freshwater pearl mussel. Agricultural pollution and sedimentation threaten the mussel’s habitat and the Esk’s water quality, however, and the Esk Restoration Project aims to address these pressures through habitat creation and restoration, farm infrastructure grants and targeted one-to-one farm advice. Sarah describes how, through this project, the NYMNPA has worked with farmers and landowners to reduce agricultural pollution via riparian habitat creation and improvements in on-farm infrastructure. This has involved, for example, the installation of in-field solar-powered water troughs to reduce riverbank erosion caused by livestock trampling and the creation of wide habitat buffers to help reduce the amount of pollutants reaching the river – Sarah describes these and other approaches in more detail, and discusses the future of the project.
Before (left) and after (right) riverbank restoration. Chris Watt (left); Sarah Lonsdale (right)
The second article set in Yorkshire is focused on peatlands. Yorkshire’s peatlands contain 27% of England’s blanket bog and support an abundance of wildlife, but changes in land management, for example through drainage and heavy grazing, have led to their degradation. In this article Jenny Sharman describes the impressive work undertaken by the Yorkshire Peatland Partnership to reverse this trend and restore and rewet Yorkshire’s peatlands. Signs of recovery have quickly become apparent, and Jenny guides us through the process of peatland restoration, which begins with initial surveys to assess the extent of the damage using satellite imagery in preparation for work on the ground where a myriad of approaches are used, from using diggers to revegetate exposed peat to installing timber sediment traps and coir logs to help slow the flow of water and retain sediment.
Three years after peatland restoration began. Jenny Sharman/YPP
Looking now to a different habitat, Robin Pakeman discusses the management of machair, an extremely rare coastal habitat only found in western Ireland and western and northern Scotland. It develops on shell sand in exposed coastal areas, and refers to the plain behind sand dunes. Human use of machair has a long history, and traditional management combined with specific environmental conditions has produced this wonderfully unique habitat, famous for its spectacular floral displays and bird and insect communities. Crofting, a form of land tenure that only occurs in north and west Scotland, has had a strong influence on Scotland’s machair, and in this article Robin explores the management of both arable and grassland machair, and describes the diversity of wildlife associated with this habitat.
Machair is known for its spectacular floral displays. Robin Pakeman
The infamous Japanese knotweed is a problematic non-native invasive species in the UK, and the general consensus regarding its control suggests that the use of glyphosate-based herbicides is required. Aston’s Eyot nature reserve, in east Oxford, was previously a rubbish dump, and since it was badly capped in the late 1940s Japanese knotweed established itself there, suppressing the growth of many other plants that would otherwise thrive. To combat this issue, the Friends of Aston’s Eyot, a group formed in 2010 to care for the nature reserve, decided to trial different approaches to management of knotweed. The trial area was divided into three; two of these were to be treated with glyphosate. In the third area knotweed was to be cut and its emerging shoots would be pulled out by hand. Claire Malone-Lee took responsibility for this third area, and in this article reflects on eleven years of manual control and demonstrates that it is possible, particularly on small sites or where knotweed is not overly dominant, to successfully eradicate Japanese knotweed without the use of herbicides.
When the Able Marine Energy Park project on the Humber Estuary was given the go-ahead, Roger Morris was concerned for the internationally important flock of black-tailed godwits that resided there, and the mudflats that they depended on. The final article in this issue, a viewpoint piece by Roger, asks if it is possible to create sustainable mudflats as a mitigation measure, and explains why it is difficult to stop or slow the process of mudflat becoming saltmarsh. He describes the processes behind saltmarsh and mudflat development, and addresses the different approaches that have and can be used for mudflat creation.
In this and every issue you can expect to see Briefing, keeping you up to date with the latest training courses, events and publications, and On the ground which provides helpful tips or updates on products relevant to land management. Other features, such as Review, which can include letters from readers or updates from our authors, also regularly appear in CLM.
CLM is published four times a year in March, June, September and December, and is available by subscription only, delivered straight to your door. Subscriptions start from £22 per year. If you would like to read any of these articles, back issuesare also available to purchase individually (subject to availability).
If you are involved in a conservation project and think your experiences could be useful to other practitioners, we would love to hear from you. Feel free tocontact us if you are interested in writing for CLM– we will be happy to discuss your ideas with you.
A new report shows that Australia is funding just one-tenth of its fair share of global climate action. The study by Oxfam and ActionAid Australia is calling on Australia to increase its climate finance commitments to $3bn, ahead of COP27 this November. Currently, Australia has only committed $400m a year between 2020 and 2025 for international climate funding. For Australia to meet its fair share of the dedicated $100bn fund agreed upon in 2009, its contributions must be $4bn annually from 2025.
Both wild and farmed Atlantic salmon are threatened by warming waters. The climate crisis is warming the world’s rivers and oceans. As warmer water contains less oxygen and simultaneously speeds up the salmon’s metabolism, increasing the need for oxygen, warmer temperatures are reducing salmon fitness, impacting their abilities to adapt to stressors. Studies by the North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization have shown that, from 2007 to 2016, only a single salmon survived its first year from 2,000 fertilised eggs, whereas prior to 1990, it would only require 1,000 fertilised eggs.
Atlantic salmon parr by E. Peter Steenstra/USFWS via Flickr
The UN has warned that the world is ‘heading in the wrong direction’ as the impacts of climate change worsen. The 2022 United in Science report has shown that there are five times as many weather, climate and water-related disasters as there were 50 years ago. The last seven years (2015-2021) have also been the warmest on record, with a 93% chance that at least one of the next five years could be hotter than 2016, the warmest year on record. To meet the 1.5°C goal set out in the Paris Agreement, current emissions reductions need to be seven times higher than they are now.
Research
A study has created a new framework to change how sharks, rays and chimaera species are considered in the design of protected areas. This will hopefully help provide the protection they need in the face of extinction. Sharks are apex predators and play a vital role in the functioning of balanced ecosystems, shaping communities and ensuring biodiversity. They’re threatened by fishing practices, either as targets or as by-catch, as well as negative public images which can lead to culls. By ensuring that the most up-to-date information is provided to governing bodies, policies and protected areas can be designed to ensure the protection of these species.
Hariotta raleighana, a long-nosed chimaera, by NOAA Ocean Exploration via Flickr
Satellites are now able to measure the thickness of sea ice in the Arctic Ocean all year round. Previously, spacecraft struggled to measure the state of sea ice in summer as the presence of surface meltwater confused instruments. Now, using ‘deep learning’ techniques, scientists are able to get reliable observations across all seasons. This will help to improve monitoring the impacts of climate change, while also aiding weather forecasting.
Researchers have found the world’s oldest heart preserved inside a fossilised prehistoric fish. The 380 million-year-old heart was made in Western Australia and captures a key moment in the development of the heart found in all back-boned animals. Soft tissues are far less likely to be preserved than bones but the minerals of the Gogo rock formation preserved many of the fish’s internal organs, including its liver and stomach.
Conservation
A fungal outbreak is threatening the tricoloured bat with extinction in the US. White-nose syndrome, which disrupts the crucial winter hibernation of bats, is ravaging tricolour bat populations, as well as populations of a dozen other North American species, including the northern long-eared bat. Both of these species have been recommended for endangered designation by The US Fish and Wildlife Service.
Two adult grey wolves, along with two cubs, have been spotted in Oregon’s Cascade mountains, giving hope that the federal protections restored earlier this year are aiding the recovery of this endangered species. After decades of hunting across the US, Oregon recorded only 14 individual wolves at the end of 2009. Since then, following protections from the Endangered Species Act, the population has grown to 175 individuals in 2021.
Cheetahs have been released in India for the first time, 70 years after they went extinct. Eight cheetahs were flown into the northern Indian city of Gwalior from Namibia. They have been released into a fenced enclosure in Kuna National Park for their quarantine period over the next month, before being released into a larger enclosure containing natural prey. Their release into the wild is controversial, particularly as a population boom of another of India’s predators, the tiger, has led to increased conflict with people sharing the same areas.
Pollution
A Coalmine wastewater spill has turned a creek in Royal national park, Sydney, to black sludge. This is the third coal pollution incident involving Peabody Energy’s Metropolitan mine this year. The Environment Protection Agency of New South Wales have collected water samples and are conducting further assessments to determine the ecological impacts of this event. There is concern that this pollution may impact the state government’s plans to reintroduce platypuses to the area.
Sand dunes in New Brighton, Merseyside, UK by Andrew Mason via Flickr
Coastal sand dunes are habitats created by sand, seashell fragments and other sediments that are moved by wave and wind action along a coastline or beach until they become trapped above the strandline. This usually occurs where vegetation is growing as their roots and leaves help to bind the sand together, preventing the sand from being blown away by the wind. There are several different types of sand dunes, categorised by their position on the shoreline, age, morphology and stability:
Embryo dunes: The youngest dunes at their earliest stage of development, usually closest to the shore and may still be covered by high tides. This area usually has high salinity and is a very dry environment with rapid drainage and a lot of exposure.
Mobile dunes: These are dunes that are no longer covered by the highest tide but are still affected by wind; sand gets blown from the beach onto, over and away from these areas.
Semi-fixed dunes: This is where vegetation cover has become more continuous with fewer areas of bare sand.
Fixed dunes: These are dunes that have very limited free space, with few areas of bare sand and almost continuous vegetation.
Dune slack: The low-lying depressions between sand dunes. These areas can often become filled with fresh or brackish water, creating small wetlands known as interdunal wetlands or interdunal ponds. These areas can warm quickly as they’re often very shallow, providing an ideal habitat for many invertebrates.
Dune scrub: A later successional stage, where a stable dune has been colonised with scrub species. These areas can continue to develop into dune-heath and older woodland.
Sand dunes can be rich in wildlife and are important habitats for birds, reptiles, invertebrates, a variety of plant species, lichens and fungi. This is particularly the case in older, more stable dune habitats. They are classified as UK BAP Priority Habitat and several Priority List species have been recorded utilising sand dunes.
What species can you find here?
Flora
Differences in flora diversity can be found depending on the position, age, morphology and stability of the dunes. Sand dunes that are still inundated at high tide can be dominated by halophilic (salt-tolerant) plants, whereas dune slack areas may be filled with fresh groundwater, allowing them to support several freshwater plant species. Areas of low stability will most likely see lower plant diversity, with the community present dominated by pioneer species. More stable dunes are generally dominated by woody plants and have higher diversity.
This is one of several pioneer species usually found in embryo dunes, as it is highly stress-tolerant. These plants allow sand to begin to accumulate, raising the top of the dune above the high tide level, while also adding organic matter to the sand through dying and decaying. This allows the sand dune to better retain water, allowing other plants to colonise the area.
This is a dune building grass as it is tall and robust, with matted roots, therefore it is very effective at trapping and stabilising sand. It can help to form very high mobile dunes as it grows at a rate of 1m per year. It is usually the dominant plant on mobile dunes and is a familiar sight on many of our coasts. By stabilising the sand and adding nutrients through its dead leaves, this plant can allow sand dunes to be colonised by many other plant species.
As sand dunes become more fixed and vegetation cover becomes more continuous, the area can be very species-rich. Many wildflowers, including harebells, can be found there, providing a food source for species such as invertebrates. Due to the wide range of environmental factors in these habitats, such as wind, salinity levels and availability of shelter and fresh water, there is often a huge variety of wildflowers.
Harebells, also called bluebells of Scotland, are tough and resilient plants, living in dry, open areas such as sand dunes. While their flowering period can vary, it’s usually from July to November in the British Isles, providing a vital source of nectar for bees during the autumn.
The final successional stages of sand dunes include colonisation by woody plants, creating dune scrubs and, finally, deciduous woodland. These woodland are often lower in species diversity, as woody species out-compete others, but the habitat will remain stable for extended periods, barring any disturbance. The type of vegetation present in the climax stage is determined by a number of factors, such as climate, exposure, soil pH, grazing level and management type. Birch trees are one of the woody species that can colonise sand dunes, particularly acidic dunes with open areas for young birch trees to grow.
Fungi
While fungi are usually associated with damper habitats, there is a variety that can be found in sand dune habitats, such as the earthtongue fungus (Glutinoglossum glutinosum), dune stinkhorn (Phallus hadriani) and several puffball species. There are also rare species that can only be found in sand dunes.
This species of waxcap occurs mainly on short grass in coastal sand dune habitats, such as on the edges of dune slacks. Waxcaps, fungi in the genus of agarics, or gilled fungi, are usually brightly coloured fungi with dry to waxy caps. They are mainly associated with unimproved grasslands, though outside of Europe they are more commonly found in woodland. Dune waxcaps resemble the blackening waxcap (Hygrocybe conica) when young, but older dune waxcaps only darken slightly, usually just on their stem, unlike the blackening waxcap.
While collared earthstars are most likely found in woodlands, particularly those with a high level of leaf litter, they can also be found on sand dunes. This star-shaped fungus initially looks like a ball, similar to a puffball, before splitting open. Other earthstars, including the dwarf earthstar (Geastrum schmidelii), can also be found in sand dune habitats, particularly mature sand dune systems. They’re often found in colonies with several fruitbodies growing together.
Fauna
Sand dunes support a diverse range of fauna species, many of which are specifically adapted to live in these dynamic habitats. Similarly to shingle beaches, which will be covered in another article, this area is a key habitat for several ground-nesting birds, such as the Ringed Plover and Skylarks, grazing species such as rabbits, and invertebrates such as bees, digger wasps and other insects.
Sand wasps reproduce by hunting caterpillars, paralysing them using their sting and burying them in burrows with the sand wasp’s egg. The females dig their burrows in sandy ground, with a nearby area of vegetation that would support their prey. Areas of sand dunes can be rich in invertebrate species, particularly where diverse vegetation is present.
This rare beetle hunts on bare sand, preying on ants, spiders, moth larvae and flies. As they need areas of open, moving sand, they are less likely to be found in older, more stabilised sand dunes. Therefore, lack of management allowing succession and reduced sediment deposition due to development or flood defences reduce the availability of suitable habitats. Conservation efforts to restore mobile sands and remove areas of scrub are helping to provide more habitats for the northern dune tiger beetle.
Sand dunes support a variety of vertebrate species, including the sand lizard, one of the UK’s rarest reptiles. Their distribution is restricted to a small number of sites, such as protected heathlands and sand dunes. They require sunny habitats with vegetation for shelter and undisturbed, open sand to lay their eggs. Their numbers are impacted by habitat loss but there are several conservation efforts working towards increasing their populations. These involve a combination of habitat restoration, monitoring, reintroduction and encouraging beneficial policies and practices.
Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus)
Female. Andy Morffew via FlickrMale. Caroline legg via Flickr
Several birds of prey use sand dune habitats as hunting grounds due to the presence of ground-nesting birds, lizards and some grazing species such as rabbits. Sparrowhawks can be found across Britain and Ireland, mainly in gardens, woodland and urban settings, but they can also be found on sand dunes, particularly if woodland is close by. They prey mainly on small birds, but they have also been recorded taking bats.
Once extinct in Britain, Choughs now have a growing population on the Cornish and Welsh coasts, as well as a few other spots around the UK. They hunt invertebrates and larvae in the exposed sandy soils of sand dunes, using their long, curved bills. With only a small population in the UK, it is important to maintain suitable areas of habitats, therefore a number of projects are reintroducing grazing species to dunes. These species help to maintain areas of open ground and short grass, preventing sand dunes from becoming scrubland.
The main threats to coastal sand dunes are development, recreational use, flood defences, falling water tables, climate change, invasive species and poor management. The development of housing, industry and areas such as golf courses can result in the damage or destruction of sand dune habitats. This, along with recreational use, such as excessive pedestrian and vehicular use, can increase levels of erosion and modify vegetation. Fragile sand dune habitats can be altered, reducing their stability and their ability to support diverse wildlife.
Poor management allows encroachment by shrubs and trees that, if left unchecked, could turn sand dune habitats into woodland areas, which can impact their suitability for specialist species. Flood defences can impact the natural processes of sediment removal and deposition, which can prevent sand dunes from developing or growing. These areas can become depleted if there is not enough sediment deposited to replace the amount removed by wind or wave action. The creation of harbours and other coastal structures can also disrupt natural sediment processes. Alternatively, these structures can also prevent sediment removal, causing a build-up of sediment.
Further threats include invasive species, such as cordgrass (Spartina anglica), which can dominate sand dunes, reducing the abundance and diversity of native plant species and reducing the number of animals that the area can support. Climate change can also threaten this habitat, as increasing intensity and frequency of storms can impact how sand dunes are formed. Sea-level rise, in combination with development, can also reduce the amount of area available for this habitat to form; this is termed coastal squeeze.
While grazing is used as a method for controlling over-stabilisation and succession, overgrazing can also impact sand dunes. It can reduce the development and spread of vegetation, preventing sand stabilisation and, therefore, reducing the diversity and abundance of the species the habitat can support. This also allows sand dunes to become depleted by wave or wind action, particularly where structures such as flood defences and development have reduced sediment deposition.
Conservation
To manage the impacts of these threats, many sand dune areas have been given Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) designations, which control the amount of development that can occur. Soft engineering approaches to flood defences including beach replenishment, the restoration of stabilised sand dunes and managed realignment, where areas are allowed to be inundated by the sea, can often be a more natural approach to reducing the impacts of waves compared to hard engineerings, such as sea walls and breakwaters. These can allow the natural process of sediment removal and deposition, facilitating the development of new sand dune environments.
As mentioned, sand dunes are subject to natural habitat succession, often ending in a stable deciduous woodland habitat. To maintain sand dune habitats, encroachment by woody species must be controlled and areas of open, mobile sand should be created as this prevents soil development and, therefore, over-stabilisation.
Areas of significance
Lindisfarne National Nature Reserve, Northumberland
Coastal zones are becoming increasingly topical as they face relentless pressure from a number of threats. This book provides a comprehensive introduction to the formation, dynamics, maintenance and perpetuation of coastal sand dune systems.
This book deals with the development of temperate coastal sand dunes and the way these have been influenced by human activity. Options for management are considered and the likely consequences of taking a particular course of action highlighted.
This field guide covers more than 600 species of wildflowers and other coastal flora found in Britain and Ireland, and coastal mainland north-west Europe. Detailed species accounts describe the wildflowers, grasses, sedges and rushes that occur on the coast or in abundance within sight of the sea.
This book describes the typical wildflowers associated with each of the Sefton Coast’s main habitats from the saltmarshes and ‘green beaches’ to the sand-dunes; the latter showing a sequence of successional stages running inland, from the newly-formed strandline and embryo dunes, through mobile and fixed-dunes to older woodland and dune-heath.
A new edition of a unique textbook that provides an exhaustive treatment of the world’s different coasts, with a focus on climate change sea-level rise. Seeking to better educate students and readers about the sustainability of coasts and coastal environment, this exciting book offers enlightening coverage of coastal geology, processes and environments.
This new edition continues the theme of the first edition: the need to restore the biodiversity, ecosystem health, and ecosystem services provided by coastal landforms and habitats, especially in the light of climate change. This will be valuable for coastal scientists, engineers, planners, and managers, as well as shorefront residents
The Great Sand Dunes sprawl along the eastern fringes of the vast San Luis Valley of south-central Colorado. Sea of Sands is the definitive history of the natural, cultural, and political forces that helped shape this incomparable landscape.
This summer was England’s hottest on record, tied with 2018. The average temperature in June, July and August was 17.1°C. Four out of the five warmest summers have occurred since 2003, with records stretching back to 1884. Hot and dry conditions are causing river levels to drop, crop damage and wildfires across England.
East Yorkshire has launched a climate change consultation, inviting residents and those who work in the area to contribute to the local authority’s response. Attendees will get a first look at the draft Climate Change Strategy developed by East Riding of Yorkshire Council, which will highlight opportunities for future action. A survey has also been created to gather people’s views on climate change from across the authority area.
Research
Ecologists are using the latest dental scanning technology to study young coral, monitoring coral size and growth. This method is said to have reduced surveying time by 99%. Dr Kate Quigley, a senior research scientist, has developed a new non-destructive method for rapidly and safely scanning coral, using an ITero Element 5D Flex dental scanner. Because coral and teeth are both calcium-based, the scanner works effectively, allowing scientists to measure thousands of tiny coral quickly, accurately and without any negative impacts on the health of the coral.
Conservation
A flock of European bee-eaters have migrated south for the winter after successfully hatching chicks in the UK. The arrival of the breeding colony in Trimingham, Norfolk, in June was described by the RSPB as a “red alert for global warming,” as they are more commonly found in the southern Mediterranean and northern Africa. Nesting bee-eaters are occurring in the UK as hotter, drier summers become more common. While they eat a variety of flying insects, including many bee species, this small colony is not expected to have had any impact on local bee populations.
European Bee-eater by Francesco Veronesi via Flickr
Water voles have been reintroduced into the New Forest, two decades after they became locally extinct. In 1998, 7000 American Mink were released from a fur farm by animal rights activists, inadvertently resulting in the loss of the local population of endangered water voles. The Environment Agency released 50 captive-bred water voles into an area near Ringwood, joining a few wild voles relocated from Salisbury. Another 50 will be introduced to the same area next spring, with the hope that the population will reach 1,000 by 2027.
A rare sea slug, Babakina anadoni, has been spotted in Cornwall, marking only the second time this species has been seen in UK waters. The first sighting was made by a Seasearch volunteer just a few weeks ago off the Isles of Scilly. Their larval stage is thought to have drifted in on ocean currents, with the adults surviving due to favourable conditions. Only a few individuals have been spotted around the world, mostly in warm waters off the west coast of Spain, as well as Portugal, France, Brazil and the Caribbean.
Babakina anadoni by Carlos Fernandez-Cid via Flickr
Policy
A ban on offshore oil and gas exploration by Shell has been upheld by a South African court. Due to the loud shock waves that would occur every 10 seconds for the five-month period, it is thought that the seismic waves used to explore the Indian Ocean coast for oil and gas would have a negative impact on whales and other marine life in the area. These surveys have been found to disrupt marine communication, navigation and eating habits, which are essential to the survival of marine life. They also damage fish air bladders, marine eggs and larvae and can cause species to temporarily migrate away from the affected area. This may have knock-on effects on local fisheries.
River water testing fell to a 10-year low last year, with only 41,519 samples tested compared to 100,000 in 2012. Experts warn that this is causing a ‘vacuum of knowledge’ about river pollution and its effects. The decrease in monitoring has coincided with repeated cuts to the Environment Agency budget. Pollution risks increase with low-flowing rivers, such as the conditions brought on by recent droughts, because the concentration of pollutants increases.
There is widespread drought and water shortages across parts of Europe, including areas of England and Germany (where water levels in the Rhine River have dropped significantly), as well as France, Italy, Spain, Netherlands and Belgium. This is Europe’s most severe drought in decades, with high temperatures and reduced rainfall testing infrastructure and water supplies. England experienced the driest July since 1935, with only 35% of average rainfall for the month falling. Other rivers such as the Danube and the Po have been impacted, threatening wildlife.
Research
Most sharks killed for fins are at risk of extinction. A new study has found that more than two-thirds of sharks hunted and used in the global fin trade are at risk of extinction. By studying 9,820 shark fin trimmings from markets in Hong Kong between 2014 to 2018 using DNA analysis, the researchers found 86 different species. Of these, 61 are threatened with extinction. The majority of fins came from blue sharks which are classified as “near threatened” by the IUCN, with the other top species including silky sharks, hammerheads, makos and threshers.
Self-pollinating plants are showing rapid loss of genetic variation. Flowering species that can self-pollinate lost genetic diversity within only nine generations without bumblebees. A new study has found that monkeyflower plants lost between 13–24% of their genetic variation compared to a group that was propagated by bumblebees. Reducing genetic diversity can limit a species’ ability to adapt to environmental changes, like those brought on by climate change. This study highlights the importance of pollinator species in combating the impacts of the climate crisis.
Conservation
Derbyshire conservationists aim to save Swifts by pushing housebuilders to install nesting bricks. These hollow bricks provide a nesting area for one of the UK’s most endangered birds, whose population has dropped by 65% in the last 25 years. The Derbyshire Swift Conservation Project, run by Derbyshire Wildlife Trust, aims to raise awareness of Swifts. This aim is now increasingly being included in planning applications for new housing.
Cornish Choughs have had a bumper year, 20 years since the first Cornish-born Choughs were seen once again. Over 70 youngsters are being raised by 25 pairs, bringing the total population to around 200 birds. Just a single pair successfully fledged young in 2002 and now Choughs can be seen all over Cornwall.
Critically endangered Albatrosses are being plagued by mice on Gough Island. This small British overseas territory in the South Atlantic is home to the Triston Albatross, along with 21 other seabird species. Mice were introduced to the island accidentally over two hundred years ago. With no existing predators, the mouse population exploded, leading to a decline in seeds and insects. In response to this drop in food supply, some mice began to prey on seabird chicks. Last year, there was an attempt to eradicate this invasive species by dropping poisoned mouse bait all over the island but this attempt failed. The mice are now once again spreading across the island.
In brighter news, the saiga antelope population has increased 10-fold after a mass die-off in 2015. A fatal bacterial disease killed around half of the population, leaving only 130,000 animals. Now, an estimated 1.3 million saiga are living in the steppe grasslands of Kazakhstan. After being hunted to the brink of extinction, numbers were down to less than 40,000 in 2005. This new increase is the result of land protections and hunting bans, which have allowed the species to begin recovering.
Policy
The US Senate has passed a sweeping climate, tax and healthcare package, which will increase corporate tax, lower the cost of some medicines and, importantly for the fight against climate change, reduce carbon emissions. The $700bn (£577bn) economic package includes $369bn (£305bn) dedicated to climate action, the largest climate investment in US history. This will be split into multiple projects, including speeding up the production of clean technology, providing tax credits for those who buy an electric car and funding for communities that have suffered the most from fossil fuel pollution.
Endangered species breeding programmes are under threat due to new EU regulations. The EU Animal Health Regulation came into force in April 2021, after being agreed in 2016, creating new controls on the import of animals and plants into the EU. These new sanitary and phytosanitary checks must be carried out at border control posts, but few exist at airports in the EU and none at French ports. Before December 2020, there were an average of 1,400 transfers of species between the UK and other EU countries in order for breeding programmes to keep the gene pool as broad as possible. But since Brexit, there were just 56 in 2021, and so far this year, there have only been 84. The lack of checking posts has effectively banned the import of any large animal, potentially preventing the breeding of certain endangered species, such as the black rhino.
The Mediterranean ecosystem is suffering the equivalent of a marine wildfire as temperatures in the area are more than 6°C warmer than normal. It is feared that the area is being permanently altered by global heating, with cooler deep water no longer rising to the surface. One study found that these marine heatwaves have already destroyed almost 90% of coral populations around parts of the Mediterranean. This decline has knock-on impacts on biodiversity within the marine ecosystems of the area.
A new project is looking at the genetic differences between bee species. ‘Beenome100’ will look to answer questions on which genetic differences make some species more vulnerable to climate change or more susceptible to different pesticides. By creating a digital repository of the complete set of genes present in 100 US bee species, scientists can link specific genes to bee functions.
Between 1986 and 2020, invasive herpetofauna cost the world $17 billion, $16.3 billion of which were associated mainly with just two species, the brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis) and the American bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus). This cost mainly comes from ruined farm crops and triggered power outages. The study’s researchers are hoping that their findings will encourage investment in preventing the spread of invasive species in the future.
Scientists have recorded more than 30 potentially new species from the abyssal plains of the central Pacific. Researchers from the Natural History Museum used a remote-operated vehicle to reach depths of between 3,095 and 4,125 metres and collect over 55 specimens. These specimens include segmented worms and coral, as well as species from the same families as centipedes and jellyfish. The study highlights the potential implications of deep-sea mining for biodiversity.
Conservation
UK wild salmon stocks are reaching a crisis point, with the lowest number on record in England. A government report urges action to remove barriers in waterways and improve water quality. 42 rivers in England are considered ‘salmon rivers’ as they are traditional breeding grounds for the fish. Of these, 37 have been classified as at risk or probably at risk. Warming sea temperatures due to climate change are being blamed, along with poor water quality in rivers and estuaries, with every waterway in England failing pollution tests in 2020. The main sources of pollution are thought to be sewage outflows and agricultural runoff.
Water voles have been reintroduced to the River Beane in Hertfordshire after being locally extinct for more than 20 years. Threatened by habitat loss and predation by the invasive American mink, the species has seen a 90% drop in population over the last five decades. Herts and Middlesex Wildlife Trust, in partnership with the Woodhall Estate and with the support of the River Beane Restoration Association, reintroduced 138 water voles to the river near Watton-at-Stone. Herts and Middlesex Wildlife Trust aim to reintroduce water voles to all Hertfordshire rivers by 2030, through these reintroduction programmes and by improving habitats.
A new Antarctic study has shown that the levels of ‘forever chemicals’ that are reaching this remote continent have been increasing. These chemicals include perfluorocarboxylic acid (PFCAs) and are termed forever chemicals as they do not break down naturally in the environment. They’re used in a variety of ways, such as in non-stick coating for pans and as water-repellents for clothing. The ice cores taken provide a record between 1957 and 2017 and show evidence that levels of these chemicals in Antarctic snow have increased over the last few decades, particularly between 2000 and 2017. There is ongoing research, however, into the clean-up of these forever chemicals, including a new study into bioremediation using a plant-derived material to absorb PFAs, disposing of them by allowing microbial fungi to eat them.
Deforestation
A new study has found that over 60% of global forest area has been lost. Using a global land use dataset, the team of researchers found that global forest area declined by 81.7 million hectares (ha) between 1960 and 2019. Gross forest loss was 437.3 million ha, outweighing gross forest gain during this time, which was 355.6 million ha. The loss of forests, both in the net area and through replacement by new growth/plantations, has a significant impact on the integrity of forest ecosystems, reducing their ability to sustain biodiversity.
The European Parliament has voted to ban ‘fly shooting’ fishing in a part of the Channel. This technique, also known as demersal seigning, involves towing weighted ropes along the seabed at either end of a net, which then encircles and captures entire shoals of fish. Fly shooter vessels catch up to 11 times more fish than inshore fishing vessels and have a devastating effect on the marine ecosystem, biodiversity and local fishers. This decision is seen as a victory for small-scale fishers but it will also help reduce the damage caused to the seabed and marine ecosystems in the Channel.
UK households recycle only 12% of single-use plastics, disposing of nearly 100 billion pieces of plastic packaging a year. A new survey by Greenpeace is one of the largest voluntary research projects on the scale of plastic waste and it asked households to count their plastic waste for one week in May. Almost 250,000 people from around 100,000 households took part and showed that the largest proportion of plastic waste was from food and drink packaging at 83%. The most common item was fruit and vegetable packaging. On average, each household threw away 66 pieces of plastic packaging in one week.
Pollution
The Environment Agency (EA) is calling for water company bosses to be jailed for serious pollution. Shocking levels of pollution occurred in the last year, with 62 serious incidents of pollution in 2021. The EA has stated that chief executives and board members of companies responsible for the most serious incidents should be jailed and that courts should impose much higher fines. Only three water companies received the highest rating of four stars for their pollution performance. The rating takes into account the number and severity of pollution incidents, as well as self-reporting and the use and disposal methods of sewage sludge. Two companies, Southern Water and South West Water, were given the lowest rating of one star.
Conservation
3D printed reefs are being used to restore marine biodiversity. WWF Denmark and Ørsted have been testing how structures made of 70% sand and 30% pozzolanic cement (a combination of volcanic ash and portland cement) could be used to create new habitats for fish and other wildlife in the Kattegat strait between Denmark and Sweden. Twelve of these structures have been deployed between the wind turbines at Anholt Offshore Wind Farm, and it is hoped that they will help reverse the decline of cod stock in the Kattegat.
Bison have been released into the wild in the UK. Wild bison are ecosystem engineers and can help to restore biodiversity in woodlands through their natural behaviours, such as felling trees by rubbing against them and grazing. This is hoped to provide a nature-based solution to tackling the climate and biodiversity crisis. The releases are part of a five-year project led by Kent Wildlife Trust and the Wildwood Trust. The next steps include introducing Exmoor ponies, Iron Age pigs and Longhorn cattle.
Contraceptives are being given to grey squirrels in an attempt to control their population and allow red squirrel populations to improve. Grey squirrels are a non-native species first introduced from North America in the 19th century. They cause significant damage to UK woodlands as they strip the bark from trees, and they tend to target younger trees that are typically between 10-50 years old, either killing them or maiming them and leaving them vulnerable to pests and diseases. Culling has not been found to be a sufficient control measure, therefore it is thought that using contraceptives, which have longer-lasting effects, may be more effective.
Young Maori divers are hunting invasive crown-of-thorns starfish to save coral reefs. The species, also known as taramea, feed on coral reefs and, when there are too many individuals, can destroy reef habitats. Korero O Te `Orau, a local environmental organisation, has been training young Maori people in scuba diving to remove taramea from the reef and bury them inland. The recent outbreak of this species around the island of Rarotonga in the Cook Islands could jeopardize the survival of the surrounding coral reef if not tackled properly. More than 3,700 taramea have been collected so far.
Research
Great white sharks might change their colour when hunting prey. Researchers conducted experiments off of South Africa using a specially designed colour board with white, grey and black panels. Each shark was photographed as it jumped out of the water at the panels, with the experiment being repeated throughout the day. One particular shark appeared to be both dark grey and a much lighter grey at different times. The results were verified using computer software to correct for variables such as weather, light levels and camera settings. While the research has not yet been validated and published in a scientific journal, experts are still excited about the results.
The US Supreme Court has limited the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) ability to curb power plant emissions, impacting America’s attempts to fight climate change.The Supreme Court ruled that the Clean Air Act does not give the EPA broad authority to regulate greenhouse gas emissions from power plants. The Biden administration plans to combat climate change by cutting the nation’s greenhouse gas emissions in half by the end of the decade and aiming for an emissions-free power sector by 2035. Now, the decision to curb power plant emissions must be taken by Congress itself, or “an agency acting pursuant to a clear delegation from that representative body.”
In other climate news, both Spain and Portugal are suffering the driest climate for at least 1,200 years, according to new research. Azores highs, high-pressure systems off the coast that blocks wet weather fronts in winter, have dramatically increased since 1980, pushing wet weather northwards. This is having severe implications for both food production and tourism. This change has been conclusively linked to increased anthropogenic emissions.
Scientists have warned Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) against watering down EU deforestation laws. Last week, a draft regulation was rewritten to define ‘forest degradation’ as the replacement of primary forests by plantations or other wooded land. As primary forests account for only 3.1m hectares of 159m hectares of overall forest, this definition would severely limit the law’s reach to only 2% of the total forest area. A letter from more than 50 scientists has stated that any exclusion of forest degradation from the law would undermine the EU’s desire for Europe to “become the first climate-neutral continent by 2050.”
Conservation
Bird flu has been confirmed at the UK’s only breeding colony of roseate terns in Northumberland. This “new virulent” form of bird flu is having a devastating impact on a number of wild bird species, with hundreds of seabirds found dead on Coquet Island. There are now calls for the government to develop and implement a national response plan for bird flu in wild birds, including clarity for collecting dead birds and a long-term plan for future threats. This disease is affecting all four species of tern on the island, as well as eider ducks, black-headed gulls and large gulls. The island is also home to nesting puffins but, so far, no puffin deaths have been recorded.
A £4.1m scheme has been revealed to improve wildlife habitats and alleviate flooding alongside roads in Stafford. The Stafford Brooks Project will target 25 locations near local rivers and streams to address the environmental impact of roads. Space will be created for wildflowers, trees and wildlife in areas where habitats have been impacted by activities from previous road building. New wetlands and reed beds are also being designed to help filter polluted run-off from roads, which can significantly impact river health.
Researchers are satellite-tracking whale sharks to explore the factors influencing their behaviour in the coastal waters of the Panamanian Pacific, including migratory and feeding behaviours. Rhincodon typus is vulnerable to population declines due to their slow maturation and they face a number of threats from humans, including entanglement in fishing nets and boat strikes. This study has shown that whale sharks spend more than 77% of their time in areas without any protection, indicating that conservation measures should go beyond the creation of local marine protected areas.
A new study, part-funded by The Mammal Society, has revealed the presence of plastic consumption in small mammals. More than 261 faecal samples were analysed to assess the exposure of seven terrestrial UK mammals to plastics. Four species, the European hedgehog, wood mouse, field vole and brown rat all had plastic polymers detected within their faecal samples. This ingestion was shown to occur across species of differing dietary habits and locations, confirming that plastic consumption is a widespread issue.
New Discoveries
A new giant water lily species has just been discovered, despite being in the archives of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for 177 years. Now holding the record as the world’s largest water lily, with its leaves growing more than 3m wide, the Victoria boliviana grows in a single water basin in part of the Amazon river system in Bolivia. It was long suspected to be different from the two other known giant species, V. amazonica and V. cruziana, but it was only when Kew grew all three side-by-side under exactly the same conditions that they could clearly see V. boliviana was totally different.
Policy
Singapore strengthened a law on Monday 4th July to stamp out wildlife trafficking, with stiffer penalties for those found guilty. The changes to the Endangered Species (Import and Export) Act include tripling the maximum jail term for individuals from two to six years and increasing the maximum fine from $50,000 (~£29,550) per species to $100,000 (~£59,100) per specimen. Companies involved in the trafficking of endangered species will also face higher fines and prison sentences, according to the Senior Minister of State for National Development, Tan Kiat How.
Most development projects will require an environmental survey. Image by John K Thorne via Flickr.
When and why you might need an ecologist
You’re likely to need to employ an ecologist if you are planning to build a house or add to or alter an existing building. An ecologist will conduct the surveys necessary to assess the possibility of the project impacting any ecosystem or habitat which is home to a protected species.
You will need a survey if the site includes or is adjacent or connected to any of the following, although your architect, planning agent or local planning authority should be able to advise you on this:
Woodland, hedgerows or scrub
Lakes, ponds, ditches or other bodies of water
Meadow, pasture or parkland
Heathland
Coastal habitat
Large rural or suburban gardens
Complex tree structures, caves or cave-like spaces
Existing derelict buildings, farm buildings or timber buildings, particularly those with access into roof spaces.
The first step in the process is usually a Preliminary Ecological Appraisal. This survey will identify evidence of any protected species or habitat suitable for supporting a protected species. If any are found then this will inform what further protected species surveys or vegetation surveys are required.
It is important to talk to an ecologist as early as possible in the planning process. Image by Rebecca Siegel via Flickr.
What is a Preliminary Ecological Appraisal?
A Preliminary Ecological Appraisal is conducted by an ecologist and usually involves both a desk-based study and a walkover/habitat survey. The desk-based study looks at local records to see if there is current evidence of protected species being present up to 2km away from your site. It will also look to see if the project has the potential to impact any nationally or internationally protected areas. The walkover survey (sometimes referred to as a Phase 1 or Extended Phase 1 survey) will assess what types of habitat are on and around the area as well as the likely presence of any species that are currently protected. It will also look at the value and significance of the habitat.
Once these are complete, the ecologist will compile a report for you that will include this information, as well as an assessment of how the project might impact the surrounding habitat/protected species and any legal issues that might be raised by the development. If no evidence of protected species is found, no further surveys will be required. However, if they find that the site of your project is home to one or more protected species, or that the habitat is likely to support them, then further species-specific surveys will be required.
The report may also make recommendations as to how the local biodiversity can be improved upon during and following the development in line with Biodiversity Net Gain guidelines. This national policy aims to improve biodiversity by creating or enhancing habitats in association with development, so that the environment is left in a better state than it was before the project began.
Further species-specific surveys may include surveying for bats using passive recorders.
What further surveys might be required?
If your Preliminary Ecological Appraisal suggests that there are protected species or their supporting habitat present on or around the development site, then more detailed protected species surveys will be required. Commonly referred to as Phase 2 surveys, these may include botanical surveys, as well as those for bats, great crested newts, hazel dormice, reptiles, water voles, badgers and breeding birds. All of these types of surveys will involve the ecologist(s) conducting at least one, but more likely a series of, site visits. There may be seasonal constraints as to when they can do this.
Once all surveys are complete, the ecologist will compile a report (usually referred to as an Ecological Impact Assessment report or EcIA) which presents their findings as well as the likely impact of the project on protected habitats and species. It will take into account your building and landscape plans including details such as proposed drainage and lighting. The report will also recommend the measures that can be taken to avoid, mitigate or compensate for the impacts, as well as how the local biodiversity could be enhanced.
For sites that might impact a European protected site, such as Special Areas of Conservation (SAC), Special Protection Areas (SPA) and Ramsar sites, an additional survey known as a Habitats Regulation Assessment might be required. This must be submitted by a competent public body (usually the local planning authority), although the work will most likely be carried out by a consultant ecologist. This will assess whether the project is likely to impact the site due to factors such as increased recreational pressure on the area, or significantly increased noise, light and water pollution.
Great crested newt surveys must be conducted during the spring. Image by Chris H via Flickr.
How to find an ecologist
There are numerous ecological consultancies located throughout the UK and Ireland, ranging from small or sole traders up to companies that employ large numbers of ecologists with multiple offices around the country. An internet search will show you if there are any based near to you, although the larger consultancies, in particular, will often undertake work over large geographical areas.
Alternatively, you may wish to search the database on the Chartered Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management (CIEEM) website. CIEEM is the professional body which represents and supports ecologists and environmental managers in the UK, Ireland and parts of Europe. Their members have proven that they are able to work to CIEEM’s professional standards and regularly undertake training to continue their professional development. Using their online members’ directory, you can search for ecologists within certain geographical areas or for specific services. Furthermore, should you have any complaints or concerns over the work conducted, CIEEM has an official complaints procedure that you can use.
When looking to appoint an ecologist, it is worthwhile getting several quotes for comparison. At this point, it is helpful to provide the ecologist with as much information as possible, such as the scope of the project (including detailed plans if these have already been drawn up), the proposed timescale you are hoping to adhere to and any advice that you have already been given (i.e. by an architect or planning agent). Providing them with a map of the area to be developed can also be extremely helpful.
Useful questions to ask at this point are:
What is included in the quote and, should additional surveys be required, what are these likely to cost?
How long is the work likely to take?
Would it be possible to see a draft report and what will be the timescale for this?
Are there likely to be other expenses that aren’t covered in the quote, such as mileage or sample analysis?
Important things to consider
• Many protected species surveys have seasonal constraints and can only be conducted at certain times of the year. Because of this, it is important to discuss your requirements with an ecologist as early as possible in the planning process so that you can plan ahead and avoid unnecessary delays.
• Don’t feel like you will be able to ‘get away with’ not conducting the required surveys. Failure to conduct or comply with the appropriate environmental surveys is punishable by law.
• Remember that survey data is not valid indefinitely. Most will be fine up to a duration of 12 months, and some even longer. But any that is more than three years old will definitely need repeating to account for any changes that may have occurred in the interim. If in doubt, it is best to discuss this with your ecologist, planning agent or local planning authority.
Summary
To summarise, when constructing a new building or adding to or modifying an existing one, an ecological survey (or surveys) is usually required to assess its impact on the surrounding habitat and any protected species that may be present. The report(s) generated by these surveys will need to be submitted to your local planning authority as part of the planning process.
To avoid delays with your project it is best to get your ecologist involved as soon as possible so that any necessary surveys can be completed on time – remember that many can only be conducted at certain times of the year.
